History of Al-Andalus: Tales of Harmony, Extermination & Vengeance
Maddah Hussain
History of Al-Andalus: Tales of Harmony, Extermination & Vengeance
There is much of the debate going on about the history of Al-Andalus or Muslim Spain. Many historians David Fintz Altabé, Mark R. Cohen, Henry Kamen, Erin Morris, Mary Elizabeth Perry, Rukhsana Qamber, Saey, Tina Hesman Saey, Matthew E. Falagas, Effie A. Zarkadoulia, George Samonis, Hugh Kennedy and Maya Soifer, with their different views have tried to solve the mystery to what exactly happened? What were the conditions in Al-Andalus? Did people of different religious faiths coexisted at that time under Muslims’ rule? What caused the massacre and conversion of Jews and Christians into Islam? What led to the Spanish Inquisition? This paper is focused on the Spanish Inquisition, its causes and its consequences which includes the conquest of Spain by Muslims, the co-existence of Muslims, Christians and Jews, the fall of Al-Andalus leading to the Spanish Inquisition and the expulsion of Muslims from Spain beginning in 1478. This paper will also distinguish between religion and the wrongdoings of men, staining it for their ulterior motives. This paper will include different views of historians and their arguments about all of the incidents stated above. The central argument of this paper is, history of Al-Andalus, through many historians is biased; with little evidence, many of historians blames Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, for the eradication of Muslims from Spain, whereas Muslims (Almohads) did in fact, exterminate Jews in communities and forced Christians to convert to Islam.
Muslims entered Spain in 711, overthrowing the Visigoth Rule. After that, they slowly covered most of the part of Spain spreading Islam. As Tina Hesman Saey writes that the Moors entered the Spain in 711 from the northern Africa. They colonized the peninsula and spread Islam. But during the era of Spanish Inquisition, Spanish Muslims were forced to leave the country or to convert to Christianity. It is also stated in her article that the Muslims, may have fled the region during the era of Spanish inquisition, the presence of Ancestral DNA, in the people of Spain highly suggests that the Muslims were there and so were the Jews. This strongly suggest that the three faith co-existed in the region of Spain. Many scholars believe that Muslims brought advancements in sciences, cultures and arts to the Iberian Peninsula. Europe enjoyed most of these advancements only from Muslims and Jews learned a great deal of knowledge from them and equipped themselves with skills in commerce, industry and trade. Now, at this point, there are certain things that should be kept in mind before going to the further study. Every Religion has its own fundamentals, teachings and ways of treatment with people of other faith.
In Islam, mostly known as the Religion of Peace and Prosperity, Muslims protect minorities and provide freedom to practice their religion. In Islam, it is wrong to force people on anything, be that as it may religion, there is no compulsion in Islam. This statement is from the Holy Scripture, the Holy Qur’an. As Mark R. Cohen points out by stating a Qur’anic verse that “there is no compulsion in the religion” (Surah 2:256), which he intends to clear a point that non-Muslims were not forced to convert to Islam. The Holy Scripture of Muslims, The Quran, is the driving force of a Muslim ruler. Everything, that is written in Quran should be followed, and if one does not consult Quran in different matters of life, ruler credibility is lost. So, Islam teaches patience and tolerance and restricts the use of Force until necessary. That being said, Islam can be said to be tolerable towards minorities.
The statement made by Cohen implies that Muslims did not force Non-Muslims to convert. Although, there were some conditions which the Non-Muslims should follow if they were to live under Muslim rules. They had to pay a special tax to the Muslims for the protection they provide to them. This system is known as “Dhimma System”. As the study of David Fintz Altabé suggests that when Muslims ruled Spain, they made no attempts to force minorities, Christians and Jews to convert to Islam. The Holy Scripture of Muslims grants the minorities to practice their faith, give protection to their properties and their lives within certain conditions. First of all was to pay the special tax and secondly, it was banned to blaspheme the name of their last prophet Muhammad.
It is the proof that the religious tolerance in Islam was mandatory, as it was from their Divine scripture to protect the minorities of other faith and their property as long as they keep paying tax (Dhimma System) in return of protection from Muslims. Although, there were certain restrictions to them also. They were to distinguish themselves from the Muslims to avoid the confusion, so that, the Muslims would not be married to them and much more. As the study of Soifer (2009) depicts that the non-Muslims were required to carry out the conduct of “Ordinance of Umar” in which they had to distinguish themselves in outside appearances such as footwear, clothing and dress accessories. So, there is a clear difference between Muslim conquerors and the minorities. she emphasizes on the situation where minorities were asked to have a different life style which clearly indicates the power and status of Muslims. Now, this treatment can be seen as an act of exclusion of minorities from the Muslim society which might have grown deep roots of hatred among the minorities.
Christians and Jews, especially Jews, were quite comfortable with their arrangements with Muslims. As they believed to live under the protection of Muslims and practice their faith freely, the terms did not have that much of the impact on them. They were quite satisfied with the Muslims and Islamic System. They were sharpening their skills, contributing towards the economy, had charge of commerce and trade. As Mark R. Cohen writes that Jews were fine and had substantial confidence in the system given to them by Muslims to pay tax. If they paid their annual taxes then, they were free from any sort of economic discrimination. They would not be massacred, expelled or forced to be converted to Islam. For that, of course, they had to keep a low profile. The fact that Jews were able to live among the Muslims peacefully and practice their faith freely, suggests that Islamic Foundation was tolerant, if followed rightfully by the rulers. It suggests that Islam was of no flaw. This evidence supports the ideology and freedom in Islam and the role of Muslims in Al-Andalus towards the co-existence of different faiths.
As the above stated views of different historians, especially the study of Soifer, it might come forth as unfair that the people of different faith under the rule of specific faith feel inferior or demoralized. It may bring forth a sense of rebellion against the rule. Every Religion, especially the Monotheistic religions, make its followers believe that they are above other people of different faith making them subject to violence and ignorance in some of the extreme cases. These Monotheistic religions are often perceived as intolerable over people of different faith. As Mark R. Cohen argues that “Monotheistic religions were by nature mutually intolerant. Adherents of the religion in power considered it their right and duty to treat the others as inferiors rejected by God, and, in extreme cases, to treat them harshly, even to encourage them (in some cases by force) to abandon their faith in favor of the faith of the rulers.” (p. 30). Be as it may, Islam or Christianity, both were higher in rank in their ruling era, declining other faith of their self-esteem, morality and confidence. This might be the reason why there was a need for crusades, as both the faiths believed to have equal rights and statuses. This might have been the very reason for conflict in the first place
Coming back to the system of Islam and its treatment, many historians suggest or even argue that Muslims did not force Jews and Christians at that time to convert to Islam. The statement of Altabé (1992) that when Muslims entered Spain, no such acts were attempted to convert either Jews or Christians to Islam, either by force or by legal or illegal jurisdiction. As it is prohibited for Muslims to do so because, the guidelines from Qur’an are very strict and must be followed. The statement of Soifer (2009) in which she argues that In an Islamic state, Muslim ruler was bound to uphold the Holy Law, known as “the sharia”. Also, he had to honor the terms of Dhimma contract which is embodied in their Holy Scripture, the Quran. it should be noted that the Muslims rulers are bound to follow the teachings of their Holy Scripture, which protects the lives and property of minorities Muslim ruler cannot deviate from it. He has no right to take course of his own as the Divine Law has been defined. These statements support the claims made towards the co-existence of Muslims, Jews and Christians in a particular time.
To further support this claim, there is a need to understand some differences between Christianity and Islam. In an Islamic state, the Muslim ruler has to follow the Law which is known as Sharia, and follow the teachings of their Holy Scripture, Holy Qur’an, and act accordingly. The law strongly protects the rights, property of minorities of different faith and Prohibits using force against non-Muslim subjects. Whereas, in Christendom, the matter is a bit different. Christian ruler had the right to do anything with the minorities, either force them to convert to the Catholic Faith or exterminate them. This concept is difference is given in the study of Soifer (2009) where it is argued that a Muslim ruler is bound by certain limitations. First, he has to uphold the Holy Law, the Sharia. Second, he has to rule under certain guidelines and uphold the terms of “Dhimma contract” as presented to him by the Holy Scripture. This Islamic model of tolerance is different from the Christianity. A Christian monarch may have been seen or respected as a ruler that is appointed by God, but his use of power including the influence he had over people of different faiths or minorities was somewhat different from Islamic ruler. He was not controlled by the Christian percepts and were under no obligation to treat religious minorities fair and justly or to protect their lives and properties. He as the king and lord of his territorial domain could expel religious minorities at his will and he often did expel them. The difference here is quite clear, as the Christian ruler does not follow any Divine Law, just follow his own affiliation to his religion and can cast out the minorities or even kill them. The sole authority is in the hands of a monarch.
Many scholars have tried to unravel the mystery that whether the people belonging to different religious faith coexisted under Muslims’ rule or not. To think technically or logically, that the Muslims ruled over Spain for over 300 years, one might be compelled to think that the Islamic system was great, not perfect, obviously it had some flaws which led to its collapse. The ruling era of Muslims strongly depicts that the people of three faiths lived comfortably with each other until the arrival of Berber Muslims (Almohads).
The system of Islam provided much needed law and order to support the existence of different faiths under one roof. Although, extremists do exist everywhere. There were Muslim extremists as well. Some of the fundamentalist Muslims from the land which is now known as Morocco came to Spain and exterminated Jews, Christians and even Jews-Christians sympathetic Muslims as Mark R. Cohen and Hugh Kennedy implies. Point here to be noted is that as most historians that seem to support Muslims as portraying them as a victim of Spanish brutality is biased. They did pick their swords against Jews and Christians and much of the hate between these faiths as of now might be the result of this incident. This argument is well backed up by the study of Mark R. Cohen in which he states that the dhimma system occasion broke down when a ruler was provoked by pious Islamic clerics that dhimmis were ignoring the regulations of the “Pact of Umar” and ruler cracked down on those dhimmis because they were provoked by the clerics. The same most infamous incident occurred in the mid-twelfth century, when the fundamentalist Berber Muslims, also known as Almohads, which were known as the “Islamists” of their era, exterminated whole Jewish communities in the Spain and North Africa. They also force thousands of Christians and Jews to covert and accept Islam as their true religion. They also imposed strict regulations of Islam on impious or strayed Muslims. Although, the system broke down by the rulers mislead by clerics, it was the same case in the Spanish Inquisition which occurred in the mid-thirteenth century, where Christians Rulers, Isabella and Ferdinand, were asked to start an initiation of inquisitional institution to clear the Moorish people off the land of the Spain. It should also be noticed that the acts of Almohads may have driven Christian people to grow hatred towards Muslims and Jews as these people forced them to convert to Islam which was opposite of what their Holy Scripture suggests.
As this paper will continue towards its contend, we will get to know that religions, faiths or beliefs do not have anything to do with what happened in the history of Spain. As the study of Cohen strongly suggests, the Muslims did ignore the teaching of Islam to commit such acts. Either led by a cleric or their own intuition, they were acting upon their instincts and their little limited mental capabilities followed by their self-righteousness or greed for power. Whatever the case maybe, the point here was to put some light on the teachings of religions and how people act differently from it or straying from them, which leads to the hatred among people of different faiths against them.
Almohads’ rule was harsh in context of treatment with the minorities. Their extreme treatment with Jews and Christians led to the rebellion which caused the defeat of the Muslims in Spain. In 1492, when the last Muslim stronghold, Granada, fell to the Christian Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon, thus began the era of extermination of Islam and Muslims from the Spain. Many movements were initiated against Muslims. The most infamous is Spanish Inquisition. It was a movement in which Muslims and Jews were forced to either convert to Christianity, leave the country or be punished/burned alive. This was when Spanish churchmen urged Queen Isabella to petition the inquisition to stamp out the heresy in the vicinity. This also favors the system of Islam being more tolerant and protective against other people of different faith, as people originally did not want to convert to the new religion. It can likely be said that the Christian ways of doing things might have put a wrong impression on the faith of Christianity. Intolerance behavior might have led convert astray of not becoming a demon and self-righteous to end the life of others in the name of a religion and God.
Some of the historians like Henry Kamen suggests, the inquisition movement is wrongly perceived by the people today. Most of the Historians link it to the Catholic Crown where it was an independent department where even the Crown could not interfere in its dealing. It did have the support of the Spanish Catholic people, nobles and the crown but its dealings were strongly independent. Whatever the case is, the Holy Inquisition was authorized by the Crown. Henry suggests, he Inquisition was asked for by the people of Spanish society to feel safe among themselves. They must have seen too much violence. It is rather contradicting as it is the side of the Christians story. The Inquisition institute was well supported by the Crown and the people favoring catholic faith. But, as the progression of time, the inquisition was falling apart because of the loss of support of the nobles. Nobles did not care much for inquisition and its affairs, even began to resented it and just like that, it began to break. The point to be noted here is that the clerics were to blame.
Many of the texts suggest that the Queen Isabella was in favor of the Jews to remain in the Spain and to protect their rights. But after too much opposition by the people of Catholic faith, she was forced to sign that petition of Inquisition. The text suggests that the Queen Isabella was quite tolerant towards Jews, if it were not for churchmen provoking the Queen, Jews might have been safe from the inquisition. This shows the corruption in the society, hearts of people stained with blood and vengeance, supporting the claim that the religion was used as a tool to bring destruction to people. The other point to be linked here is that, fundamentalist Catholics did take extreme measure of unifying people of Spain under a single faith just as Fundamentalist Muslims (Almohads) did in their time of ruling era.
To look at it more closely, lets jump towards the situations after Inquisition. When Jews were being expelled from the Spain, they took refuge under ottoman ruler, King Beyazit II. He knew that the Jews were peaceful and hardworking skilled people, so he took them under his wings and it is rumored that he said, “how can anyone call Ferdinand wise when he impoverished his own kingdom to enrich mine”. This, once again, proves that the Muslims tends to be kind hearted among people of different faiths, as the King Beyazit II himself welcomed Jews with open arms and did not force them to convert to Islam whereas, Christians were forcing Muslims and Jews to convert to Christianity or to leave the land of Spain or face the inquisition (punishment), This also support the evidence that Islam and its right follower would do nothing like forcing or exterminating people. The blame is on self-righteous people who deem it right to spread a religion with the use of force. Coming back to the expulsion of Muslims from Spain, Mary Elizabeth Perry put forth the records of inquisition reports, stating the history of four Morisca women, who were subjected to Inquisition. Inquisitors’ focus was only on the newly converts. Four women named, Leonor Hernández, Fatima/Ana; Madalena, and María de Aguilar, were subjected on the doubts, testimony of catholic faith people or their own family members. Although the case of Maria was a bit different from the rest of the women, inquisitors sought to seek the people who converted to Christianity due to fear of banishment and death. The newly converts, in secret, practiced their original faiths. Inquisitors sought to target kids of Moriscos so they would testify against their loved ones. Same happened with Leonor, her son testified against her and hence, she was subjected to inquisition. The Inquisitors had doubts that the newly convert people fell back to the original faith just to escape punishment or banishment that is why they held the loved ones of the accused and from them, they extracted information about the practices one (accused) continues
Fatima story is a bit different, she got sick and was taken to hospital. She baptized herself either due to sickness or fear of not getting treated, but after recovery, she practiced the old faith and people got to know about it and questioned her, she said that she might have gone crazy otherwise, she would not have converted to Christianity in the first place. Although, inquisitors thought it to be a mocking to the sacrament of Christianity and hence, she was subjected to the Inquisition. It is well stated that the Christians did not had faith in the newly converts or baptized and they would do anything to make sure that the Moorish cultures and practices be eradicated and they would punish anyone, who would even cling to a single practice of the Moors. Madalena’s story is a bit different from the above stated stories. Two Christians saw her washing her body as a Muslim. The point to be noted here is that she grew up among the Muslims so there might be things imprinted on mind intentionally and where inquisitors only seek to eradicate Muslims and their culture from the Spain. So, this was unacceptable to them and hence, she was too subjected to Inquisition. It was illogical to arrest someone on the basis of practices one commits, as child tends to imitate what their elders do. The same was the case with Madalena, she continued to wash herself as she used to and maybe, she converted whole-heartedly, but the Inquisitors were not into justifications or sound reasoning. Coming back to the last woman, Maria, she went to inquisitors for help from her husband who she accused of taking her away from the Spain to convert to Muslim Faith. The point here is that Inquisitors only needed some kind of proof to accuse the newly conversos. The accused were not given a trial to defend themselves and the only rightful judge were the inquisitors. The only evidence needed was the testimony of anyone. Obviously, this could be used against any Morisca out in the Spain. These were the records written by the inquisitors, so it subtracts the possibility of a fair trial. It should be noted that these testimonials or records were not written by the accused but the accuser, which can be far from the actual truth Inquisitors have different methods to capture the heresy or Muslims in the Spain. First of all, they would capture a member of a family of Morisca, most probably a child, who will spill all the information related to his or her family. Secondly, Catholic people were allowed to report anything unusual that would signal the presence of Muslim Culture. Then, they will take children of Moriscos at a very young age and teach him Catholic Faith ways, so that, Muslims would cease to exist in Spain.
The inquisitors used carrot and stick method to be more precise. Stick being the teaching of new faith and the stick meant the inquisition. So, the religious diversity in the Spain decreased drastically under Christian rule. It is clearly stated that Christians did not want Muslims to reside in Spain. They wanted complete annihilation of Muslim faith in the area of Spain and for that, they tend to take children of newly converts and teach them their faith. People who resisted were subjected to inquisition. Such extreme measures were taken by Catholic people. So, the point here is that Christians or Inquisitors did force the conversion of Muslims and Jews in Spain. Although, they did offer one thing more than the Almohads. Almohads’ conditions were absolute. The conditions were either to accept Islam as their religion or die. Whereas, the Christians’ conditions were either to convert to Christianity, leave the country or to face a punishment/burned alive.
Through all of the statements and arguments stated above by different historians, it is not surprising that many of the facts of Al-Andalus is still a mystery, but historians have tried their best to depict the situation according to their opinion. Many of the historians, guided by their intuition wrote against Muslims and Christians as well. Blaming one of the sect would not solve any problem. It is time to see things differently by seeing both sides of a coin. Understanding the situation that people were in that era. Either, it was for righteousness, greed, hunger or power, both Muslims and Christians are stained with blood on their hands. Both gave into anger, intolerance and limited capability of their mind and because of that, many lives were lost. It is rather a sad history. Be as it may, Jews, Christians and Muslims, all suffered the collateral damage of self-righteousness of some extremists and corrupt people.
References
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[ 1 ]. Tina Hesman Saey, Spanish exiles left genes behind: Inquisition couldn't quash Moorish, Jewish presence, Society for Science & the Public Wiley, no. 1 (2009): 12.
[ 2 ]. Matthew E. Falagas, Effie A. Zarkadoulia and George Samonis, Arab Science in the Golden Age (750–1258 C.E.) and Today, The FASEB Journal, no. 10 (2006): 1581-1586.
[ 3 ]. Mark R. Cohen, The “Golden Age” of Jewish-Muslim Relations: Myth and Reality. New Jersey, US: Princeton University Press, 2008, 31.
[ 4 ]. David Fintz Altabé, The Significance of 1492 to the Jews and Muslims of Spain, The Significance of 1492 to the Jews and Muslims of Spain, no. 3 (1992): 728.
[ 5 ]. Maya Soifer, Beyond convivencia: critical reflections on the historiography of interfaith relations in Christian Spain, Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies, no. 8 (2009): 25.
[ 6 ]. Mark R. Cohen, The “Golden Age” of Jewish-Muslim Relations: Myth and Reality. New Jersey, US: Princeton University Press, 2008, 33.
[ 7 ]. Cohen, 30.
[ 8 ]. David Fintz Altabé, The Significance of 1492 to the Jews and Muslims of Spain, The Significance of 1492 to the Jews and Muslims of Spain, no. 3 (1992): 728.
[ 9 ]. Maya Soifer, Beyond convivencia: critical reflections on the historiography of interfaith relations in Christian Spain, Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies, no. 8 (2009): 25.
[ 10 ]. Soifer, 25.
[ 11 ]. Hugh Kennedy, Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of Al-Andalus (New York, Pearson Education Limited, 1996): 196-223.
[ 12 ]. Mark R. Cohen, The “Golden Age” of Jewish-Muslim Relations: Myth and Reality. New Jersey, US: Princeton University Press, 2008, 33.
[ 13 ]. David Fintz Altabé, The Significance of 1492 to the Jews and Muslims of Spain, The Significance of 1492 to the Jews and Muslims of Spain, no. 3 (1992): 729.
[ 14 ]. Henry Kamen, 500 years of the Spanish Inquisition, History Today, 39-40.
[ 15 ]. Erin Morris, “Objectives of the Spanish inquisition 1480-1530: racialism, control and financial gain” (master’s thesis, California State University, Dominguez Hills, 2008), 21.
[ 16 ]. David Fintz Altabé, The Significance of 1492 to the Jews and Muslims of Spain, The Significance of 1492 to the Jews and Muslims of Spain, no. 3 (1992): 729.
[ 17 ]. Mary Elizabeth Perry, Between Muslim and Christian Worlds: Moriscas and Identity in Early Modern Spain, The Muslim World, (2005): 179.
[ 18 ]. Perry, 178-192.
[ 19 ]. Ibid, 178-192.
[ 20 ]. Ibid, 178-192.
[ 21 ]. Ibid, 178-192.
[ 22 ]. Ibid, 178-192.
[ 23 ]. Ibid, 178-192.
[ 24 ]. Rukhsana Qamber, Inquisition Proceedings against Muslims in 16th Century Latin America, Islamic Studies, no. 1 (2006): 26.
