...1025C Laboratory Exercise 3: Characteristics of Enzymes Introduction What are Enzymes? Enzymes are very large and complex proteins that that function as catalysts. They are synthesized by the cell to perform very specific functions. Each type of enzyme has a very specific shape (conformation) which provides its specific function. The shape of an enzyme molecule is determined and maintained by many weak intermolecular interactions between many different parts of the molecule. A catalyst is a material that donates energy to reactants in order to reduce their activation energy. In other words, they allow reactions to occur with less energy input (i.e. more quickly or at lower temperatures). The very specific shape of enzymes allows them to “fit” into a reaction and reduce the energy necessary for the reaction to occur. If their shape is changed, their ability to function as a catalyst is reduced or eliminated. As biological catalysts, enzymes are important because they speed up the rate of the reaction they catalyze that would otherwise be too slow to support life. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity The rate at which an enzyme works is influenced by several factors including temperature and pH. Enzymes are most effective as catalysts under optimum physical and chemical conditions; as conditions change away from optimum, enzyme activity decreases (Figure 1.). Changes in various environmental factors, such as temperature or pH, may affect proteins by altering their shape; with loss of...
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...of Peroxidase on Enzyme Activity Gianna Crowe Bio Lab 117 October 16th, 2014 Most enzymes are proteins that speed up reactions and are characterized as catalysts. Enzymes work in such a way that when the right chemicals of a molecule are present for the enzyme, it will fully fit the shape. The part of the particular shape is called the active site of the enzyme, since this is where the reaction occurs. The molecule that the enzyme works on is called the substrate. An enzyme reaction includes a substrate (substance) that is converted to another product. The unique shape of the active site of the enzyme allows it to bind with only certain kinds of molecules, which is the substrate of the enzyme (Strobl 2014). A substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme to form a enzyme-substrate complex for a very short time, this then becomes part of a new formation and a new product of a specific reaction is formed then released freeing the active site, allowing the enzyme to repeatedly bind another substrate. Enzymes are produced by all living things, and are a necessity to life. They are responsible for constructing, synthesizing, carrying, dispensing, delivering, and eliminating the many chemicals associated in living organisms (Colpa 2014). An example for how enzymes work in living organisms would be the process of food digestion, enzymes work to break down food and speed up the digestion process. Factors that affect enzyme activity deal with environmental conditions, which...
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...rather that you have investigated the objectives of the lab. You may be asked to “design an experiment to determine….” You don’t necessarily need to create a new lab; if you have done an activity that would answer the question, simply describe it. For a good response, you should include the following. 1. State a hypothesis [as an “if…..(conditions), then….(results)” statement] Be sure your hypothesis is testable. 2. Identify the variable factor. 3. Identify the control. Be certain to explain the control for the experiment. 4. Hold all other variables constant. 5. Manipulate the variable. 6. State how you would measure the results. 7. Discuss the expected results. Relate the results to your hypothesis. 8. Include steps to replicate or verify. You may be asked to graph data. Be sure to use a graph that is appropriate for you data. Bar graphs are used when data points are discrete (not related to one another), while line graphs are used with the data are continuous. If there is a data point at zero, be certain to extend your line to 0, but do not extend the line to 0 if there is no data point at zero. Other points to keep in mind: 1. Label a graph with a descriptive title. 2. Label the x- and y-axes. (Know which variable is dependent and which is independent.) 3. Keep all measurement units constant. Each division on a graph must represent the same value. Lab 1: Diffusion and Osmosis Know the terminology...
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...ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE DIVISION DESIGN, O & M UNIT FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF BIOREMEDIATION (An Aid to the Development of Bioremediation Proposals) APRIL 1998 S:\CP\BIOREM\NEW_BIO.DOC TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv I. INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 II. POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BIOREMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2 III. IV. A. B. C. D. E. PRESUMPTIVE EVIDENCE FOR BIOREMEDIATION ----------------------------------- 3 GLOSSARY OF TERMINOLOGY -------------------------------------------------------------- 3 Intrinsic Bioremediation --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 Engineered Bioremediation ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 Combination of Technologies-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 In Situ Bioremediation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4 Ex Situ Bioremediation ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 V. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY -----------------------------------------------------------------------------...
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...Molecules, Biodiversity, Food and Health Biological Molecules Biological Molecules (a) describe how hydrogen bonding occurs between water molecules, and relate this, and other properties of water, to the roles of water in living organisms; Water is a polar molecule. This is because the oxygen atom pulls the shared electrons towards it, meaning that water is slightly negatively charged at the oxygen and positively charged at the hydrogen ends, so they can form hydrogen bonds with each other. This are continuing breaking and reforming, so the molecules can move around. Property of water Solvent Importance Metabolic processes in all organisms rely on chemicals being able to react together in solution Examples 70-95% of cytoplasm is water. Dissolved chemicals take part in processes such as respiration and photosynthesis in living organisms Liquid The movement of materials around organisms, both in cells and on a large scale in multicellular organisms requires a liquid transport medium Water molecules stick to each other creating surface tension at the water surface. Cohesion also makes long, thin water columns very strong and difficult to break Blood in animals and the vascular tissue in plants use water as a liquid transport medium Cohesion Freezing Water freezes, forming ice on the surface. Water beneath the surface becomes insulated and less likely to freeze Thermal stability Large bodies of water have fairly...
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...Temperature is a fundamental ecological variable identified to affect bioaccumulation. A variety of studies showed that alterations in environmental temperature can considerably alter bioaccumulation, even though the impact of temperature on bioaccumulation is not always stable. Mechanistically, the effect of temperature on bioaccumulation could be specialized to physical or biological factors or to the relationship of the two. Indeed, some researchers established that temperature-induced variations in bioaccumulation were possibly due to alterations in biological influences rather than physical ones. Temperature has numerous influences on the physiology and behavior of aquatic organisms that that has the capacity of potentially affecting exposure intensities and bioaccumulation. The oxygen demand on an organism increases as the temperature...
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...Polymerase Chain reaction (PCR) Name of student Name of Institution Abstract Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is greatly used in molecular genetics. It entails amplification of a single DNA strand into millions of similar DNA fragments. It involves three stages in each cycle. It is repeated to about 30 cycles. This method is vital as it is used in various processes such molecular identification, genetic engineering, and sequencing. The three stages in each cycle have varying duration and temperature. A thermal cycler is involved in the regulation of temperature in various stages. Over time, various modifications have been done to PCR technique so that it can be applied in specific roles. The PCR has been of aid in the diagnosis of diseases and other numerous applications. In the near future, PCR will be advanced and perhaps replaced by better techniques. Nevertheless, PCR will remain critical for future advancements in molecular genetics. Introduction Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is broadly employed by scientists in biochemistry and molecular biology. Thus, its essence cannot be underestimated in the development of genetic analysis and gene manipulation. The technique was established by Karry Mullis in the early 1980s. It entails amplification of a single or several DNA fragments into millions of identical copies of DNA. The process is done by repeated number...
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...Summer Project Report Study of MDA (malondialdehyde) as abiotic stress marker in CSV-17 variety of Sorghum bicolor. Submitted in partial fullfilement of the requirement for B.Tech. Biotechnology Semester VII AMITY INSTITUTE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY AMITY UNIVERSITY RAJASTHAN JAIPUR 2011 Supervised by: Dr Ajit Kumar Sr. Research Officer S.P. Institute of Biotechnology, Jaipur Submitted by: Ravi Pareek DECLARATION I hereby declare that the project report entitled “Study of MDA (malondialdehyde) as abiotic stress marker in CSV-17 variety of Sorghum bicolor” is a record of the work compiled by me under the supervision and guidance of Dr. Ajit Kumar, S.P. Institute of Biotechnology, Jaipur as a part of my 45 days summer training. Ravi Pareek (B.TECH-BIOTECHNOLOGY) (AUR0821094) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First of all with due regard to my respective god with whose kindness and blessing we could be able to accomplish the task of training. Mr. Sourabh Pareek, for his kind permission to allow me to undergo my major project at S. P. Institute of Biotechnology, Jaipur. I am overwhelmed with rejoice to take this opportunity to evince my profound sense of reverence and gratitude to my esteemed supervisor respective Dr. Ajit Kumar, for giving his regular advice and excellent suggestion which have helped us for completing the study. His regular assistance and guidance really helped me to bring formidable task in successful manner. Sincere thanks to Dr. Sonali Jana and Dr. Neha Upreti for their cooperation...
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...THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TRICHODERMA REESEI IN THE BIOCONTROL OF FUSARIUM OXYSPORUM AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES A project report submitted for examination in fulfillment of the requirements for the course Unit SBT 414: RESEARCH PROJECT in the Bachelor of Science (Microbiology and Biotechnology) Degree. AMWAYI ANGELA LUKALE I23/3384/2008. Signature…………………… Date……………………….. SUPERVISOR: DR. P.M WACHIRA Signature …………………… Date………………………. SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI. 2011-2012 DECLARATION iii DEDICATION iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v ABSTRACT vi CHAPTER ONE 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 JUSTIFICATION 2 1.2 OBJECTIVES 3 1.2.1 Broad objective 3 1.2.2 Specific objectives 4 CHAPTER TWO 4 LITERATURE REVIEW 4 2.1 Trichoderma Spp. 4 2.2 Fusarium species 8 CHAPTER THREE 11 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY. 11 3.1 Media Preparation 11 3.2 Isolation of pathogenic fungi (Fusarium spp). 12 3.4 Dual culture inoculation 13 CHAPTER FOUR 13 RESULTS 13 CHAPTER FIVE 18 DISCUSSION 18 CHAPTER SIX 20 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 20 REFERENCES 21 8. Dudley, N. S. (2007). Pathogenicity of four Fusarium species on Acacia koa seedlings. Missoula, MT: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Region, Forest Health Protection. 21 12. James, R. L. (2002). Biological control of Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium proliferatum on young Douglas-fir seedlings by a nonpathogenic strain of Fusarium oxysporum. Missoula, MT: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service...
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...The argument for smoking prevention among adolescents is based on the observation that, if smoking does not start during adolescence, it is unlikely ever to occur and on data indicating that the probability of cessation among adults is inversely related to age at initiation. Even infrequent experimental smoking in adolescence significantly increases the risk of adult smoking. Once smoking has begun, cessation is difficult and smoking is likely to be a long-term addiction. For example, it has been estimated that the median cessation age, for those born from 1975 through 1979 who begin smoking in adolescence, is 33 years for men and 37 years for women. Based on a median initiation age of 16 to 17 years, the predicted duration of smoking is 16 and 20 years for 50% of the males and females respectively. Prevention of the onset of adolescent smoking is thus an essential component of efforts to reduce the overall prevalence of smoking and its attendant morbidity and mortality. Although there are educational programmes available with demonstrated effectiveness in reducing the prevalence of adolescent smoking over the short term, the longer term evaluations are not as encouraging. The differences in smoking levels between treated and control groups appear to dissipate over time, and disappear completely after six years. Further evaluations of these educational efforts are warranted, with consideration given to methodological problems inherent in such studies (such as potential bias resulting...
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...lo io yB io g oCSEC B Biologyy og Bi ol gy lo yB io g lo io og B ol Bi y Caribbean Examinations Council ® SYLLABUS SPECIMEN PAPER MARK SCHEME SUBJECT REPORTS Macmillan Education 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW A division of Macmillan Publishers Limited Companies and representatives throughout the world www.macmillan-caribbean.com ISBN 978-0-230-48203-6 © Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC ®) 2015 AER www.cxc.org www.cxc-store.com The author has asserted their right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988. First published 2014 This revised version published 2015 Permission to copy The material in this book is copyright. However, the publisher grants permission for copies to be made without fee. Individuals may make copies for their own use or for use by classes of which they are in charge; institutions may make copies for use within and by the staff and students of that institution. For copying in any other circumstances, prior permission in writing must be obtained from Macmillan Publishers Limited. Under no circumstances may the material in this book be used, in part or in its entirety, for commercial gain. It must not be sold in any format. Designed by Macmillan Publishers Limited Cover design by Macmillan Publishers Limited and Red Giraffe CSEC Biology Free Resources LIST OF CONTENTS CSEC Biology Syllabus Extract 3 CSEC Biology Syllabus 4 ...
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...Biology guide First assessment 2016 Biology guide First assessment 2016 Diploma Programme Biology guide Published February 2014 Published on behalf of the International Baccalaureate Organization, a not-for-profit educational foundation of 15 Route des Morillons, 1218 Le Grand-Saconnex, Geneva, Switzerland by the International Baccalaureate Organization (UK) Ltd Peterson House, Malthouse Avenue, Cardiff Gate Cardiff, Wales CF23 8GL United Kingdom Website: www.ibo.org © International Baccalaureate Organization 2014 The International Baccalaureate Organization (known as the IB) offers four high-quality and challenging educational programmes for a worldwide community of schools, aiming to create a better, more peaceful world. This publication is one of a range of materials produced to support these programmes. The IB may use a variety of sources in its work and checks information to verify accuracy and authenticity, particularly when using community-based knowledge sources such as Wikipedia. The IB respects the principles of intellectual property and makes strenuous efforts to identify and obtain permission before publication from rights holders of all copyright material used. The IB is grateful for permissions received for material used in this publication and will be pleased to correct any errors or omissions at the earliest opportunity. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted...
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...AS Biology Unit 1 page 1 AQA AS Biology Unit 1 Contents Specification Biological Molecules Chemical bonds Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Biochemical Tests Enzymes Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic Cells Cell Fractionation Microscopy The Cell Membrane Movement across Cell Membranes Exchange The Gas Exchange System Lung Diseases The Heart Coronary Heart Disease The Digestive System Cholera Lifestyle and Disease Defence against Disease Immunisation Monoclonal Antibodies 1 – Mathematical Requirements 2– The Unit 1 Exam 2 4 6 8 10 16 17 24 28 30 31 35 37 44 46 50 54 58 60 67 68 72 80 81 83 86 Cells Human Physiology Disease Appendices These notes may be used freely by A level biology students and teachers, and they may be copied and edited. Please do not use these materials for commercial purposes. I would be interested to hear of any comments and corrections. Neil C Millar (nmillar@ntlworld.co.uk) Head of Biology, Heckmondwike Grammar School High Street, Heckmondwike, WF16 0AH July 2011 HGS Biology A-level notes NCM/7/11 AS Biology Unit 1 page 2 Biology Unit 1 Specification Biochemistry Biological Molecules Biological molecules such as carbohydrates and proteins are often polymers and are based on a small number of chemical elements. • Proteins have a variety of functions within all living organisms. The general structure of an amino acid. Condensation and the formation of peptide bonds linking together amino acids to form polypeptides. The relationship...
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...pathogenesis of the hallmarks of the disease-ie, plaques, composed of amyloid β (Aβ), and tangles, composed of hyperphosphorylated tau. However, as our knowledge increases so does our appreciation for the pathogenic complexity of the disorder. Familial Alzheimer's disease is a very rare autosomal dominant disease with early onset, caused by mutations in the amyloid precursor protein and presenilin genes, both linked to Aβ metabolism. By contrast with familial disease, sporadic Alzheimer's disease is very common with more than 15 million people affected worldwide. The cause of the sporadic form of the disease is unknown, probably because the disease is heterogeneous, caused by ageing in concert with a complex interaction of both genetic and environmental risk factors. This seminar reviews the key aspects of the disease, including epidemiology, genetics, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment, as well as recent developments and controversies. 100 years ago, Alois Alzheimer gave a lecture at a congress in Tubingen, Germany, on the first case of the disease that Kraepelin some years later named Alzheimer's disease.1 In this single case. Alzheimer described typical clinical characteristics with memory disturbances and instrumental signs, and the neuropathological picture with miliary bodies (plaques) and dense bundles of fibrils (tangles), which we today know are the hallmarks of the disease. Here, we review the epidemiology, genetics, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of the disease...
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... 2015) What does physiology mean? * Normal function of a living thing, human cell, tissue, organ , system What is Pathophysiology? * Abnormal function caused by an adverse event/stimulus * The event can be mechanical/chemical/radiation/etc. * It has a negative impact on function How relevant is A&P to Patho? * Pretty relevant * You know when something is wrong with the human body if you know how it functions when its healthy * You need to know what’s normal to appreciate what’s different Cell and tissue biology * If you can understand what is happening in a cell, you can see what is happening in a tissue, (tissue is group of cells performing a similar function) * Injuries can be caused by chemical, intentional or unintentional, etc. Sub-lethal (reversible), or lethal (irreversible) * Cellular aging is a normal part of cell life Structural and functional changes leading to cell death or decreased capacity to heal * Different cells age at different rates * Skin cells get replaced every day, red blood cells get replaced every 4 months * There are 5 million blood cells travelling in the human body at a time Adaptation: how a cell responds to stimulus (ex. Pregnancy), to escape and protect themselves from injury Normal cells meet injury it could do one of two things * It could say, I’m going to change myself so I can stay healthy adaptation * If the adaptation doesn’t work or unsuccessful, then the cell becomes...
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