How were watercolourists able, with such a delicate medium, to capture both the picturesque appeal of the British landscape and architecture as well as the fleeting effects of light and weather?
“With reference to Watercolour Painting, we have to speak of a new art, originating with the English, and perfected in the age whence it began”
Quoted as above, William Henry Payne describes the developments of new techniques that allowed Britain to move to the forefront of watercolour painting in the late 18th century. Watercolour is one of the oldest known media, and has remained popular over the centuries; yet Britain is credited with having ‘perfected’ the medium during this period. It was at this time that a number of treatise written on its usage, most famously, Ruskin’s ‘The Elements of Drawing’, which became a best seller during the Victorian period. Three artists in particular- Thomas Girtin, Paul Sandby and J.M.W. Turner- are recognized as having mastered the technique, reinvigorating the use of watercolour. These artists elevated watercolour by depicting subject matter often reserved for oil paint, often on a far larger scale than that which had previously been produced. Not only did these artist contribute greatly to the technical development of the medium, they also helped to pioneer the ‘picturesque’, an aesthetic ideal that was entered into English cultural debate by the writings of William Gilpin in 1782. The term’s meaning became a more specific reference to a way of presenting the English countryside as something constant and stable. It may best be described as a mediator between the opposing notions of ideal beauty and the sublime. These important political and philosophical concepts were explored through watercolour, allowing for the elevation of the technique in this period.
Paul Sandby was the earliest of the three eminent watercolourists, being described in his obituary as ‘the father of modern landscape painting in water colour’. It was in this period that watercolour became the ideal medium for capturing the ephemeral quality of nature that the Romantics valued. Prior to Sandby, watercolour was primarily used for topographical purposes: colour was subordinate and often selected from a limited palette. Although trained as a topographer, Sandby soon broke away from tradition by created watercolours that were full of vivacity and freedom of line. Colour became more than a mere ‘fill-in’, with Ruskin exalting the importance of colour, claiming that it is better to ‘give up all the form, rather than the slightest part of the colour’. Sandby would often dispense of preliminary sketches, instead drawing with the brush. His painting ‘An Ancient Beech Tree’ (see fig 1) demonstrates the artist exploiting a range of colours to their full potential. In this image, the gnarled and twisted tree positioned at the painting’s foreground both dominates and frames the composition, dwarfing the surrounding figures. The depiction of this natural structure overpowering the figures seems to augur the notion of the sublime that would later emerge, spurred on by the writings of Edmund Burke. Yet unlike the ‘sublime’ paintings that would be produced by the likes of Turner, the tree here seems to provide comfort and shade for the surrounding figures, showing man and nature in a harmonious state. The tree also holds some connotations associated with the term ‘picturesque’, its presence suggesting the stability of nature. It is likely that the tree was included on account of the recommendations of William Gilpin, for according to Gilpin, it may be considered a distinctly English feature: ‘The oak of no country has equal beauty: nor does any tree answer all the purposes of scenery so well. The oak is the noblest ornament of a foreground…’
Unlike some of the more loosely painted, hazy watercolour paintings that would soon become popular amongst the likes of Turner, Sandby often outlined the items depicted in his painting to bring them into sharp focus. The painting of the foliage and the wide variety of hues in which the tree trunk has been depicted perhaps best shows the richness in colour. Sandby manages to emulate the saturated quality of oil paint through the use of ‘body colour’: this is when the watercolour is mixed with a white pigment, often gouache or Chinese white. A number of Sandby’s contemporaries would have condemned the artist’s use of body colour. Ruskin responded to those who deem use of body colour “illegitimate” by claiming it be ‘just as legitimate as oil-painting… for oil will not dry quickly, nor carry safely, nor give the same effect of atmosphere without tenfold labor’.
Like Paul Sandby, Thomas Girtin began his career as a topographic painter, later in his career synthesizing the topographer’s tendency to emphasize the individuality of a place with ‘the artist’s expression of self in his rendering of atmospheric effects’. Girtin’s ‘Lindisfarne Abbey’ (see fig 2) touches upon a theme popular amongst Romantic: the inherent tension between the natural world and man made structures. Unlike Sandby’s ‘An Ancient Beech Tree’, the colour used is far more subdued and dull, bearing some resemblance to topographic images. The colour may also suggest something about the weather and season, the muted colours conveying something of a cold winter’s day. The painting serves as a good example of Girtin’s ability to capture the fleeting effects of light, as is demonstrated by the shadows on the building, as the artist appears to have worked from light to dark. Girtin has used a thicker paint to create loose scribbles and dots for the markings on the masonry, a technique adapted from Canaletto’s use of the reed pen. Further texture is created in the depiction of the building through the use of ‘laid’ paper, which creates a ridged surface.
This image is not only characteristic of the Romantic period in terms of its style, but also its subject matter. Here, one can see this notion of the ‘sublime’ demonstrated more clearly than in Sandby’s watercolour. The ancient structure is shown to dwarf man, and is shown at such an angle so that the viewer feels belittled by it too. This is a reflection of the prevailing interest in the grandeur of the past that was spurred on by the Grand Tour. Thus the painting combines renewed interest in classical antiquity with new and innovative artistic techniques.
Although John Constable was recognized for his tightly controlled oil paintings, the artist’s watercolours often saw the artist use a looser, more expressive style of painting that diverges from the style of Girtin, but bears some resemblance to the work of his contemporary, J.M.W Turner. One image in particular, entitled ‘A study of Clouds and Trees’ (see fig 3) demonstrates Constable’s desire to capture the fleeting quality of light in his painting. The sketch was one of Constable regular studies of the sky; where he attempted to capture the fleeting weather conditions. Often, he would write inscriptions on the back of such paintings to describe the movements of the clouds, amongst other conditions, and to record the precise time and date. The clouds in this image suggest a transition from a clear, bright day, as conveyed by the clouds on the right, to the dark, oppressive storm forming on the left. The translucency of the watercolour (Constable has not used body paint like Sandby) make the pencil drawing underneath visible, revealing the artist’s first attempts at capturing the rough outlines of the clouds, which do not quite match up with the watercolour paint on top due to the inevitable shifting of the cloud’s positions. In contrast with Sandby’s image, a fairly limited colour palette has been selected, dominated by blue, green and grey. The painting has been rendered with blots of colour that convey an impressionistic quality and a rapid painting style required in capturing the constantly moving clouds. Watercolour, being a fast drying medium, would have been perfectly suited for this transient scene. Although the majority of Constable’s cloud studies were completed in oil, the artist may have wished to use watercolour in this image to make the sky appear more luminous. It took time before Constable was able to achieve the same effect in oil: as Ian Fleming Williams asserted, ‘it is in watercolour drawings such as this that we first see signs of the future Constable, the truly great landscape painter’.
Whilst J.M.W Turner subscribed to this notion of the ‘sublime’ that Girtin had excelled in, it is arguable that Turner surpassed his contemporaries in the diversity of his method and techniques. As his lecture notes for the RA reveal, Tuner greatly concerned himself with attempting to capture the effects of light. Using the metaphor of a glass full of water, Turner said that because of the ‘innumerable rays reflected and refracted… to define the powers of light and shade upon such surfaces is like picking grains of sand to measure time’. A painting that shows Turner’s exploring these effects is ‘Venice, storm at sunset’ (see fig 4). The image lacks the clarity found within Girtin and Sandby’s paintings, the scene being shown at distance and veiled in mist. The sky dominates the composition, allowing Tuner to capture the subtle shift of tone in the sky, along with the water and the faces of the buildings. It is the most expressive of the paintings discussed both in terms of its colour palette and its mark makings, the sky being comprised of broad, sweeping brush strokes that create a sense of motion. The painting also demonstrates a technique frequently employed by Turner known as ‘scratching’, which has been used to create details, giving ‘both sky and water a dappled, complex intermingling of tone that evokes changing effects without literally depicting motion in the sky’. The sky is shown in various shades of pastel blue with its complimentary colour of orange, along with yellow, reflected in the rippling sea below. Again, the viewer is presented with this concept of the sublime, as conveyed by the mast of the boats, which seem on the verge of tilting over with the force of the wind.
‘Tintern Abbey’ (see fig 5), a watercolour by Turner, very much embodies the concept of the ‘picturesque’. This would certainly have been the opinion of Gilpin, who claimed that ‘among all the objects in art, the picturesque eye is perhaps most inquisitive after the relics of Ancient Architecture… They are consecrated by time; and almost deserve the veneration we pay to the works of nature itself’. The framing arch, the rough broken stone and the perspective that leads the viewer’s eye along the structure are all elements to be found in Gilpin’s prose. In this image, Turner unifies nature and architecture by depicting a structure that appears as though it is being reclaimed by nature, as implied by the foliage that envelops the ancient structure. Here, the viewer is presented with an image that is akin to Girtin’s both in term of style and subject matter. There is far more clarity in this image than the painting by Tuner previously discussed, as like Girtin, the artist has recorded the structure accurately with meticulous attention to the architectural details. The painting is also far less expressive in terms of its colour palette, employing similar muted tones. There is also the same careful consideration of the fall of light, with beams falling through the right hand side of the buildings, casting shadows on the shrubbery. The viewer is positioned in the shadows, looking out towards the facing wall of the structure, which, by contrast, is bathed in light. Furthermore, the image is depicted from a low vantage point, so that like the figures towards the far end of the image, the viewer is made to feel as though they are looking up at the structure inspired with the same feeling of awe and wonder. The inclusion of the figures very much echoes the content of Girtin’s painting, hinting at this notion of the sublime by showing man to be insignificant in the face of nature and ancient grandeur.
To conclude, the artworks discussed demonstrate the versatility of watercolour in capturing the various effects found in nature. Watercolour can produce highly detailed, accurate depictions of nature, as shown by some of the works discussed by Turner, Sandby and Girtin. These depictions can appear just as realistic as paintings produced in oil, but watercolour affords the artists a calligraphic immediacy, luminous colour and speed of production. Whilst it may lack the same sense of texture as an image produced in oil paint, the type of paper used can often solve this defect, just as a similar richness in colour may be achieved through the use of body paint. Furthermore, as illustrated by the watercolour discussed by Constable, and Turner’s ‘Venice, storm at sunset’, watercolour provides expressive opportunities for artist. Quick drying, watercolour is a suitable medium for depicting the temperamental effects of light and weather conditions. Thus, during the eighteenth century, watercolour overtook oil in the depiction of such ‘picturesque’ subject matter, as it was better suited to the technical and creative desires of artists of the time.

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Bibliography
Scott Wilcox & Christopher Newall, Victorian Landscape Watercolour (Hudson Hills, 1992)

Ruskin, The Elements of Drawing (J. Wiley and Sons, 1865)
Jane Munro, British Landscape Watercolours 1750-1850 (The Herbert Press, 1994)

Christopher John Murray, Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era (Routledge, 2012)

Alexander M. Ross, The Imprint of the Picturesque on Nineteenth-Century British Fiction (Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press 1986)

Wilton & Lyles, The Great Age of British Watercolours 1750-1880 (The Spectator, 1993)

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Fig 5

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[ 1 ]. Scott Wilcox & Christopher Newall, Victorian Landscape Watercolour (Hudson Hills, 1992)
[ 2 ]. Quote from Scott Wilcox & Christopher Newall, Victorian Landscape Watercolour (Hudson Hills, 1992)
[ 3 ]. Ruskin, The Elements of Drawing (J. Wiley and Sons, 1865)
[ 4 ]. Jane Munro, British Landscape Watercolours 1750-1850 (The Herbert Press, 1994)
[ 5 ]. Ruskin, The Elements of Drawing (J. Wiley and Sons, 1865)
[ 6 ]. Christopher John Murray, Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era (Routledge, 2012)
[ 7 ]. Jane Munro, British Landscape Watercolours 1750-1850 (The Herbert Press, 1994)
[ 8 ]. John E. Thornes, John Constable’s Skies: A Fusion of Art and Science (Continuum International Publishing Group, 1999)
[ 9 ]. Jane Munro, British Landscape Watercolours 1750-1850 (The Herbert Press, 1994)
[ 10 ]. Leo Costello, J.M.W. Turner and the Subject of History (Ashgate Publishing, 2012)
[ 11 ]. Leo Costello, J.M.W. Turner and the Subject of History (Ashgate Publishing, 2012)
[ 12 ]. Alexander M. Ross, The Imprint of the Picturesque on Nineteenth-Century British Fiction (Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press 1986)
[ 13 ]. Alexander M. Ross, The Imprint of the Picturesque on Nineteenth-Century British Fiction (Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press 1986)