Imagery, PEETLEP Model and Technology
Michael S. Harmon
Capella University

Abstract
The use of imagery in the realm of sport psychology is widely accepted and used to enhance skill, reduce anxiety, increase decision making skills, etc. Although several models are available to construct imagery scripts, the PEETLEP model offers seven concepts that should improve the delivery system over more traditional oriented approaches. Integrate that model with advances in technology (video capture, podcasts, virtual reality), the sport psychologist has the opportunity to help an athlete enhance their performance like no other time in history.

Imagery conducted for sport performance is referred to as sport imagery, but can be used interchangeably with the broader term mental imagery (Taylor and Wilson, 2005). Several other terms including mental practice, mental rehearsal, and visualization have also been used to refer to various components of mental imagery in sport (Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005; Taylor and Wilson, 2005; Weinburg & Gould, 2007). Specifically, sport imagery can be defined as using all senses to re-create or create a sport experience in the mind with the goal of enhancing sport performance during training and competition (Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005; Vealey & Greenleaf, 2001; Weinberg & Gould, 2007).
There is a large amount of empirical evidence that supports that mental imagery works (Liggett, 2000; Moran, 2002; Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005; Porter, 2003; Taktek, 2004; Taylor & Wilson, 2005; Vealey & Greenleaf, 2001; Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Anecdotal evidence is also plentiful, including several accounts from well-known athletes of various sports. For example, golfer Tiger Woods has acknowledged the importance of seeing and feeling desired shots in the mind prior to physically hitting the golf ball (Moran, 2002). Tennis great Chris Evert visualized matches based on her opponent’s style of play (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Evert was quoted that she often felt like she had already played a match even before stepping on the court (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Hockey legend Wayne Gretzky used visualization by looking at pictures of previous champions and repeatedly envisioning himself holding the Stanley Cup (Orlick, 1998). Two-time Olympic Gold Winner Greg Louganis used imagery by visualizing his dives in slow motion (Liggett, 2000; Louganis & Marcus, 1995). Many other great athletes have been known to use some form of imagery including Muhammad Ali, Michael Jordan, Bill Russell, Andre Agassi, and Carl Lewis (Liggett, 2000; Porter, 2003). Sport imagery is not only valued by the athletes, but also by many coaches. One coach that is probably the most recognized for using sport imagery is Hall of Fame coach Phil Jackson, who methodically employs mental concepts and techniques to the game of basketball. In Jackson’s books (Sacred Hoops: Spiritual Lessons of a Hardwood Warrior, 1996; More than a Game, 2001; The Last Season: A Team in Search of its Soul, 2005) he described the importance of the intellectual component of playing basketball and how it contributes to personal and team success. With eleven NBA (National Basketball Association) championships, Jackson’s teams definitely had the mental edge over their opponents. The collection of empirical and anecdotal evidence makes it apparent that sport imagery plays a key role in athletic performance and sport success. Research findings also indicate that sport imagery is more effective when it is combined with physical practice (Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005; Taktek, 2004; Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Any improvements to either mental training or physical training, or both, would certainly result in greater gains in sport performance. Therefore, it is important to determine the best methods to enhance the sport imagery experience in conjunction with physical training. Can the PEETLAP model and new technology integrate to enhance athletic performance in the realm of sport imagery?
PETTLEP MODEL
The following seven items for sport psychologists to consider have been distinguished for ease of communication. The model comprises: physical, environment, task, timing, learning, emotion, and perspective. The model draws on the neuroscientific functional equivalence literature previously mentioned and our experiences of the factors that relate to motor imagery script construction (Holmes & Collins, 2001). All the PETTLEP components are considered by Langian theory because “it is the interaction between training mode and the propositional structure of the imagery presentation that is crucial” (Carroll, Marzillier, & Merian, 1982, p. 76).

Physical
Most sport performers encounter their first imagery training sessions with the instructions, “lying or sitting comfortably, visualize . . .” Indeed, some authors (e.g., Miller, 1991; Weinberg, Seabourne, & Jackson, 1981) advocate relaxation strategies prior to imagery to clear the mind of distractions. However, the literature’s support for such wide spread use seems at best devided and certainly not a critical variable (Murphy, 1994). Relaxation’s link with imagery seems to be based in its therapeutic past (e.g., Wolpe, 1958) rather than through empirical support from sport psychology research. Suinn’s (1976) visuo-motor behavior rehearsal is a method specifically requiring relaxation prior to imagery. While there is little doubt that some relaxation strategies can have a positive imagery effect for some individuals, the technique does not take into account the influences of relaxation which would seem to be totally contrary to the somatic state of the performing athlete. The majority of relaxation techniques described is primarily somatic in nature and, therefore, is seen to act primarily on somatic systems (Davidson & Schwartz, 1976). However, if relaxation strategies are to be used then techniques which can best create the “calm mind–aroused body” observed in elite performance (Hooper & Collins, 1999) should be advocated.
Environment
Lang (1979, 1985) has emphasized that the response and meaning propositions must be relevant to the individual. Motor imagery should, therefore, be personalized through full, multisensory involvement of the performer in the generation of the motor image content. Suggesting situations that are not specific to the performer or the performance may not be an effective use of mental practice. However, supporting individual motor imagery with videotaped recordings of performance in familiar training and competition environments should more effectively access the correct motor representation. In cases in which performance is to take place at a new venue, every attempt should be made to provide the performer with multisensory environmental cues to increase the validity of the stimulus propositions in the imagery process. These may include video footage, photographs, discussion with previous venue performers etc. (Syer & Connolly, 1987, p. 64)
Task
When considering the findings by Konttinen, Lyytinen, and Konttinen (1995) there is strong evidence that imagery techniques should be different for elite compared with pre-elite performers. Konttinen and his team identified that during good performance, elite rifle shooters focus primarily on motor control prior to triggering (internally driven) whereas pre-elite shooters were more concerned with visuo-spatial processing (externally driven). Therefore, the imagery modality for elite versus pre-elite, should be different until the pre-elite, begin to display task characteristics of the elite group.
Similarly, Hardy (1997) has provided evidence that task characteristics should determine the primary perspective of the imagery although possibly not at the expense of individual perspective preference. In tasks where form is emphasized as important, Callow and Hardy (1999) have suggested that a combination of external visual imagery with kinesthetic imagery will lead to superior performance with the external visual image possessing greater information about the nature of the form.
Timing
Vogt (1995) showed that movement tempo and consistency of relative timing were similar in physical and mental practice conditions. He concluded that performance, observation, and imagery of sequential patterns involves a common process. A study by Collins, Morriss, Bellamy, and Hooper (1997) has stressed temporal rhythm, as opposed to achieving key body positions, as a key feature of effective performance. Realistic timing, it is suggested, is, therefore, even more important. In sports where the temporal nature of the task is important, performers frequently refer to it first when doing well, and many athletes identify such as important for their imagery scripts.
Learning
According to research by Pascual-Leone, Dang, Cohen, L. G., Brasil-Neto, Cammarota, and Hallett (1995) the motor responses will change over time as learning takes place, so the content of the motor imagery must change to accommodate such learning. By analyzing the motor areas, they have shown that motor imagery of finger movements increased in conjunction with motor preparation and execution over a one week period. Therefore, where motor imagery is combined with technical training or in intensive learning phases of a task, regularly reviewing content is essential to increase learning.
Emotion
Emotion has recently been referred to as “the missing link” in sports performance (Botterill, 1997), while others have observed that “the central core of mental training is emotional” (Loehr, 1997). Similarly, Moritz, Hall, Martin, and Vadocz (1996) found that high sport-confident roller skaters used more mastery and arousal imagery suggesting that emotions are an important imagery mediator. Lang (1985) suggests that the performer’s response, and the meaning he or she attaches to a scenario, must be considered if strengthening of the memory is to take place. However, Lang has also stated that during emotional imagery the efferent pattern is even more elaborate.
Perspective
As previously suggested, motor imagery is performed from an internal orientation (primarily kinesthesis, but concurring with other individual and task specific percepts such as vision and olfaction). It is generally well regarded that this perspective, along with similar response propositional approaches (Lang, 1979, 1985), leads to a greater physiological response during the imagery process (Perry & Morris, 1995; Hale, 1982). This in turn, should lead to more effective learning and performance outcomes. However, recent findings have led to renewed interest in imagery perspective with some authors (e.g., Hardy & Callow,
1999; White, & Hardy, 1995) proposing the use of external visual imagery as a more effective approach for certain types of form based skills which allow the performer to “see” precise positions and movements (Hardy & Callow, 1999).
TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES
It is within these contexts that the new forms of technology be explored and applied to enhance the script writing procedure and enrich the athletes experience and performance. Sport psychologists, along with coaches and athletes, are already using modern devices such as digital cameras, digital video recorders, computers, and various software programs in conjunction with mental imagery (Straub, 2003). It is likely that using the latest technology will generate innovative applications of imagery for skill acquisition and performance enhancement. There are several high-tech devices available today, particularly mobile devices, which have great potential in functioning as technical tools for sport imagery. Examples of mobile devices include digital media players, smartphones, personal digital assistants, and handheld personal computers. The iPod is perhaps the most popular modern device to date. The number of iPods sold have reached over 140 million, making the iPod the most widely-used digital device worldwide (Mack & Ratcliffe, 2007).
Technology is constantly evolving. This means that older, inferior products are always being replaced by high-tech models that are more advanced, more efficient, and more reliable. New products have several advantages. One advantage is that new models usually have more functions and applications. Also, next-generation models often possess a distinctive aesthetic value or “cool factor” effect. In some cases, this may entice individuals to try something new or different. It is apparent that “many athletes are attracted to approaches that involve new technology,” (Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005), thereby promoting the practice of mental techniques. So for athletes who normally would not be interested in mental imagery techniques, he or she may actually try it if “cool” gadgets (specifically iPods) are involved.
Technical techniques via video modeling, biofeedback, and flotation are suggested as worthy considerations in the application of imagery in sport (Morris, Spittle, & Watt; Fletcher, 2005). Research evidence supports that the use of technical aids can potentially facilitate mental practice by increasing the accuracy and efficacy of imagery (Morris, Spittle, & Watt; Fletcher, 2005). For instance, Mayers (2005) determined that video modeling was successful in increasing free throw shooting accuracy among high school basketball players. Aldridge, Morris, and Anderson (2003) found that self-efficacy and basketball free throw shooting performance significantly increased for participants in the imagery-plus-floatation condition. Biofeedback studies have also shown positive results in increasing sport performance, but have yielded inconsistent results (Kavussanu, Crews, & Gill, 1998).
The existing research regarding VR for sport psychology training is rather anecdotal in nature. Sorrentino, Levy, Katz and Peng (2002)developed a head-mounted display (HMD) system that allowed speed skaters to prepare for the 2002 Winter Olympic Games. An environment of the competition venue was created, and the system allowed the athletes to navigate within the scene and become acclimated to the surroundings. The athletes reported positive experiences with the system, but no controlled experiment was performed to validate the observations. Another recent study also looked at using VR to assist a golfer in learning relaxation techniques (Lagos, Vaschillo, Vaschillo, Lehrer, Bates Pandina, 2011). Biofeedback training was administered to a college athlete using a golf simulator over a 10-week period, and psychometric tests and physiological measurements were recorded. The results demonstrated that the athlete had improved anxiety control after using the training system. While both of these studies suggest using VR for sport psychology training would be beneficial, controlled experiments are needed to validate the feasibility and effectiveness of the systems.
CONCLUSIONS
With the combining of the PEETLEP model, which encourages the use of multiple variables found in the execution of athletic performance, with the emergence of the incredible technological advances that sport psychologists may utilize, the use of imagery in athletics should see a significant increase. With the availability of video capture applications on tablets and smartphones, the sport psychologist can provide on demand, not only sport specific but individual specific imagery video’s in a matter of minutes as opposed to hours or days that was the case in the recent past. Also, the emergence of Virtual reality may be one of the best tools that a sport psychologist may have to increase the effectiveness of imagery in athletic performance. Virtual Reality will allow for the sport psychologist to individualize and immerse the athlete in situations and learning environments without having to rely on the “expertise” of learned imagery by the athlete. Also, Virtual Reality may employ all seven aspects of the PEETLEP model which would give the athlete the best experience in imagery thereby heightening the level of performance.

REFERENCES
Aldridge, T., Morris, T., & Andersen, M.B. (2003). A comparison of flotation and autogenic relaxation for the facilitation of imagery of basketball shooting. In New approaches to exercise and sport psychology: Theories, methods and applications. Proceedings of the 11th European Congress of Sport Psychology. Retrieved September 23, 2007 from http://www.ifi.ku.dk/fepsac/abstracts/FEPSAC2003%20Book%20of%20Abstracts.pdf.
Botterill, C. (1997). The role of emotion in sport performance: The missing link? Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 9, 12.
Carroll, D., Marzillier, J., & Merian, S. (1982). Psychophysiological Changes Accompanying Different Types of Arousing and Relaxing Imagery. Psychophysiology, 19(1), 75-82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1982.tb02603.x
Collins, D. J., Morriss, C., Bellamy, M., & Hooper, H. (1997). Competition stress effects on kinematics and performance level in elite javelin throwers. Journal of Applied Sport
Psychology, 9, S38.
Davidson, R. J., & Schwartz, G. E. (1976). The psychobiology of relaxation and relaxed states: A multi-process theory. In D. I. Mostofsky (Ed.), Behavior control and modification of physiological activity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
Hale, B. D. (1982). The effects of internal and external imagery on muscular and ocular concomitants. Journal of Sport Psychology, 4, 379–387.
Hardy, L. (1997). Three myths about applied consultancy work. Journal of Applied Sport
Psychology, 9, 107–118.
Hardy, L., & Callow, N. (1999). Efficacy of external and internal visual imagery perspectives for the enhancement of performance on tasks in which form is important. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 21, 95–112.
Hooper, H., & Collins, D. J. (1999). A focus on elite athletes’ interpretations and their perceived effects on performance: I. Anxiety and arousal. Manuscript submitted for publication. Jackson, P. & Arkush, M. (2005). The Last Season: A Team in Search of Its Soul. New York, NY: Penguin Press
Jackson, P. & Delehanty, H. (1996). Sacred Hoops: Spiritual Lessons of a Hardwood. New York, NY: Hyperion.
Jackson, P. & Rosen, C. (2001). More Than a Game. New York, NY: Seven Stories Press.
Kavussanu, M., Crews, D., & Gill, D. (1998). The Effects of Single versus Multiple Measures of Biofeedback on Basketball Free Throw Shooting Performance. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 29, 132-144.
.Konttinen, N., Lyytinen, H., & Konttinen, R. (1995). Brain slow potentials reflecting successful shooting performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66, 64–72.Lang, P. J. (1979). A bio-informational theory of emotional imagery. Psychophysiology,
17, 495–512.
Lagos, L., E. Vaschillo, B. Vaschillo, P. Lehrer, M. Bates and R. Pandina (2011). "Virtual reality-assisted heart rate variability biofeedback as a strategy to improve golf performance: A case study." Biofeedback 39(1): 15-20.
Lang, P. J. (1985). Cognition in emotion: Concept and action. In C. Izard, J. Kagan, & R.
Zajonc (Eds.), Emotion, cognitions, and behavior (pp. 192–226). New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Liggett, D. (2000). Sports Hypnosis. 41-55. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Loehr, J. (1997). The role of emotion in sport performance: Emotions run the show. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 9, S13.
Louganis, G. & Marcus, E. (1995). Breaking the surface. New York: Random House.
Mack, S. & Ratcliffe, M. (2007). Podcasting Bible. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley.
Mayers, J. (2005). Effects of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal and model type on free throw shooting. Dissertation Abstracts International. (Order No. DA3177120).
Miller, B. (1991). Mental preparation for competition. In S. J. Bull (Ed.), Sport psychology:
A self-help guide (pp. 84–102). Marlborough, UK: Crowood Press
Moran, A. (2002). In the mind’s eye. The Psychologist, 15 (8), 414-415.
Moritz, S. E., Hall, C. R., Vadocz, E., & Martin, K. A. (1996). What are confident athletes imaging? An examination of image content. The Sport Psychologist 10, 171–179.
Morris, T., Spittle, M., & Watt, A. (2005). Imagery in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Murphy, S. M. (1994). Imagery interventions in sport. Medicine and Science in Sport and
Exercise, 26, 486–494.
Pascual-Leone, A., Dang, N., Cohen, L. G., Brasil-Neto, J., Cammarota, A., & Hallett, M.
(1995). Modulation of motor responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills. Journal of Neurophysiology, 74, 1037–
1045.
Porter, K. (2003). The Mental Athlete. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Orlick, T. (1998). Embracing your potential. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Perry, C., & Morris, T. (1995). Mental imagery in sport. In T. Morris & J. Summers (Eds.),
Sport psychology: Theory, applications and issues. Queensland: John Wiley.
Sorrentino, R. M., R. Levy, L. Katz and X. Peng "Virtual Visualization: Preparation for the
Olympic Games Long-Track Speed Skating." International Journal of Computer Science in Sport: 40.
Straub, W. (2003). Digital Sport Psychology. The Sport Supplement: A Supplement of the Sport Journal. Retrieved September 19, 2007 from http://www.thesportjournal.org/sportsupplement/Volume11/sport-supplement-digital.htm#.
Suinn, R. M. (1976). Visual motor behavior rehearsal for adaptive behavior. In J. Krumboltz
& C. Thoresen (Eds.), Counseling methods. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Syer, J., & Connolly, C. (1987). Sporting body, sporting mind: An athlete’s guide to mental training. London: Simon & Schuster.
Taktek, K. (2004). The Effects of Mental Imagery on the Acquisition of Motor Skills and Performance: A Literature Review with Theoretical Implications. Journal of Mental Imagery, 28 (1&2), 79-114.
Vealey, R. & Greenleaf, C. (2001). Seeing Is Believing: Understanding and Using Imagery in Sport. In Williams, J. (Ed.), Applied Sport Psychology: Personal Growth to Peak Performance, (4th ed., 276-278). Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Vogt, S. (1995). On relations between perceiving, imagining and performing in the learning of cyclical movement sequences. British Journal of Psychology, 86, 191–216.
Weinberg, R. & Gould, D. (2007). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Weinberg, R. S., Seabourne, T. G., & Jackson, A. (1981). Effects of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal, relaxation, and imagery on karate performance. Journal of Sport Psychology,
3, 228–238.
White, A., & Hardy, L. (1995). Use of different imagery perspectives on the learning and performance of different motor skills. British Journal of Psychology, 86, 169–180.
Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press.