...INNATE AND ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY: Compare and Contrast the Biological Processes Underlying Innate and Adaptive Immunity By (name) Course: Instructor: University: City/State: Date Compare and Contrast the Biological Processes Underlying Innate and Adaptive Immunity In the biology Immunology field, immunity is defined as the balanced state of a living organism for instance, the human body having sufficient biological defenses to combat infection, illness, or other unwanted biological incursion, while having acceptable tolerance to avoid contamination and allergies (Sompayrac, 2012, p.5). The immune system is a group of cells, nerves, and molecules that defend the body from many pathogenic microorganisms and contaminants in the environment. These defenses against microorganisms have been alienated into two broad categories of reactions, which are responses of innate immunity and those of adaptive immunity. Consequently, innate and adaptive immunity can be perceived as two similarly significant aspects of the immune system. This paper aims to highlight and assess the differences concerning innate and adaptive immunity despite them serving a similar function in human immunology. Immunology has conventionally allocated the immune system into innate and adaptive mechanisms with dissimilar functional roles (Sompayrac, 2012, p. 6). The first comparison is placed in their definition of function where the innate immune system is comprised of cells and proteins that are constantly present...
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...IMMUNOLOGY INNATE (NONSPECIFIC) DEFENSES - mechanical and chemical Skin + Mucous Membranes – Prevent/slow entry 1. Skin Closely-packed keratinized cells w/tight junctions + desmosomes; sloughing of outer layer 2. Mucous membranes - Line openings to the exterior (respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive tracts) Mucus = sticky entrapment Tight junctions in epithelial tissue 3. Underlying connective tissue (dermis, lamina propria) Viscous to slow movement 4. Hair Protect from abrasion (scalp); filter air (nasal) 5. Acidity Skin – sebum; Stomach – HCl (pH 2); vaginal and urinary secretions 6. Lysozyme – Destroys cell walls of some bacteria Sweat, tears, saliva, nasal secretions 7. Other antimicrobials – defensins, dermacidin, IgA 8. Expel microorganisms Sweat, tears, urine flow, vaginal secretions, saliva Coughing, sneezing, vomiting, defecation Cilia of upper respiratory tract - propels mucus away from lungs Internal Defenses – Prevent spread 1. Phagocytosis - Macrophages, Neutrophils, Microglial cells (CNS), Kupffer cells (liver) 2. Natural killer cells (in blood + lymph) Cell lysis of cells without proper self cell markers (tumor cells, virus-infected cells) 3. Antimicrobial proteins a. Interferon - Proteins made by viral-infected cells Virus - needs host cell machinery to replicate; takes over host to make more viruses Prevents virus from multiplying in other infected cells (Can also activate macrophages and NK...
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...Roger Bernier is with the CDC and prevention, the National Immunication Program in Atlanta, GA. Karen Midthun is with the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, FDA in Washington, DC. They are both credible sources and wrote a scholarly article. The article discusses the proposal of an independent vaccine safety board. This board would assess the safety of licensed vaccines. This board and its interaction with the CDC and the FDA would result in sound decisions. Minton, K. (2003). Smallpox vaccine safety. Nature Reviews Immunology. 3(7), p.514. Minton discusses the smallpox vaccine in this article and how it can have serious side effects because it consists of a live virus. Important decisions should be made about the benefits and risks of the vaccine and CDC guidelines state there has to be informed consent before administering the vaccine. Kirsty Minton, the author of the article, is a senior editor for the Nature Reviews Immunology at Nature Publishing Group. The article was objective and informative. I enjoyed reading this article and it will be a good reference for my senior research project. Nabel, G. J. (2013). Designing tomorrow’s vaccines. The New England Journal of Medicine. 368, 551-560. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1204186 Vaccines have been successful in preventing human infectious diseases and preserving public health. The traditional vaccines have alleviated suffering and death from microbial threats. This article discusses how vaccines are the most cost-effective...
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...Have you ever seen people walking around with white patches all over there body? Do you ever wonder what condition or disease that person may have? Do we at times just these people and look down on them just because they look different? What is our reaction when we see a person walking on the street that has white patches all over them? Are we quick to judge, or do we simply look at it as they have a health problem and there's nothing wrong with that? Do some of us even know what those white patches on the skin may mean? Those white patches that we at times see in some people are a condition known as Vitiligo. Vitiligo is medically known for being an auto-immune disease. An auto-immune disease simply means that the person's own immune system attacks its own tissues and in some cases their organs. When a person has vitiligo, their melanocytes are destroyed or killed off and they start to get pigmentations (white patches) on different parts of their bodies. The parts of the body that may get pigmentations are: the hands, feet, face, the inside of the mouth, genitals, rectum, and in some cases the persons hair may turn white because of the vitiligo. In other cases of vitiligo, the mucous membranes (tissues that line the inside of the mouth and nose) and the retina (inner layer of the eyeball) can be affected. The cause of vitiligo is still unknown, but some scientists and doctors have developed a few theories about its origin. Some scientists and doctors...
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...Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease that causes chronic inflammation of the joints. Rhematiod arthritis can also cause inflammation of the tissue around the joints, as well as other organs in the body. Autoimmune diseases are illnesses which occur when the body tissues are mistakenly attacked by its own immune system. The immune system is a complex organization of cells and antibodies designed normally to "seek and destroy" invaders of the body, particularly infections. Patients with these diseases have antibodies in their blood which target their own body tissues, where they can be associated with inflammation. Because it can affect multiple other organs of the body, rheumatoid arthritis is referred to as a systemic illness and is sometimes called rheumatoid disease. While rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic illness, meaning it can last for years, patients may experience long periods without symptoms. Typically, however, rheumatoid arthritis is a progressive illness that has the potential to cause joint destruction and functional disability. A joint is where two bones meet to allow movement of body parts. Arthritis means join inflammation. The join inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis causes swelling, pain ,stiffness, and redness in the joints. The inflammation of rheumatoid disease can also occur in tissues around the joints, such as the tendons, ligaments, and muscles. In some patienst with rheumatoid arthritis, chronic inflammation leads to the destruction of the...
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...I. There are numerous amounts of diseases all over the world. In the present time, these diseases are cured or contained by vaccines. A couple centuries ago, doctor Edward Jenner developed the first vaccine in 1796. He discovered this vaccine by observing his ambiance. Jenner realized that milkmaids (tend to cattle) frequently contracted cowpox, but after they convalesced they were immune to the deadlier disease smallpox. So Jenner said, “Why not infect people with cowpox to confer immunity to the more dangerous disease.” With his research, he got the pus from a milkmaid who had cowpox and put it on a small healthy eight-year-old boys cut. Eventually, the boy was infected with cowpox, how Jenner predicted. When he was done recovering, Jenner took the riskiest step there is. Jenner deliberately injected the smallpox disease into the kid. This was a dangerous step because smallpox resulted in thousands of deaths every year or left the person disfigured. Thankfully, the boy never contracted smallpox. After this finding, Edward Jenner constructed the first vaccine in history. The production and administration of vaccines have been beneficial, cutting the global death rate in half by destroying or containing diseases. II. Diseases are all over the world and there are copious amounts of them. A. Before scientists discovered what caused diseases, people had no idea what caused these harmful diseases or how to properly treat them. 1. The cause of disease used to be from people thinking...
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...Mapping Immunity to Change By: LaKisha M. Crawford It's difficult to change. This is demonstrated by the number of New Year's resolutions we make and how few of them actually lead to lasting change. For most of us, the resolutions are just more evidence that change attempts seem doomed from the start. Yet most of us see our resolutions as worthy and important. We truly want change in our life, and we are sincere in our commitment to achieving it but just don’t know how. Kegan and Lahey developed an Immunity to change X-ray to help leaders change and become the leaders that they want to be. Not everyone is a natural born leader. Leadership is something that has to be learned. Knowing how to effectively manage your workload is an important part of being a good leader. Learning how to delegate tasks out to employees, prioritize, set realistic deadlines, avoid distractions and say no to unreasonable requests can help to increase your sense of job satisfaction and that of your staff. This also enables you to produce work of a higher quality, because you are able to place more of a focus on the projects you should be spending your time on. Everyone has a well-tuned system of coping mechanisms in place which helps keep us safe and helps us to avoid fear, anxiety, and emotional discomfort. Kegan and Lahey liken this phenomenon to an immune system. Our own emotional immune system is intelligent in...
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...Staloral Immunotherapy – Patient Information Staloral oral immunotherapy is an effective treatment for allergies. It is different to previous oral immunotherapies, which are diluted injectable solution, taken orally. In the 7 studies as of March 2007, it is equally an effective treatment as injection immunotherapy and a lot safer. Over 140 million doses of Staloral immunotherapy have been given without one serious reaction. Severe reactions have occurred with allpyral injection solution in about 1 in 7000 injections and death has occurred in about 1 in 2 million injections. Staloral immunotherapy can be self-administered at home and saves the time and cost of going to the doctor (for injection immunotherapy). It costs more than injection solutions because it is several hundred times the strength. Most health-care extra funds will rebate some of the cost of oral immunotherapy. The idea of immunotherapy is to make your body tolerate what you are allergic to. We do this by increasing the dose of the ingested allergen between 240-800 times during the course of the program. It is still important to do allergen reduction measures, as you do not want to remind your body of your allergens by continuing to breathe in high amounts. Most patients find it reduces the need to take other medications. The dose is given by pressing the solution under the tongue. The chart will show you how to increase the strength. Use PRESSES not drops. The solution should be kept under the tongue for 2 minutes...
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...37 - 41 Automatic Resume Recommender system Using Artificial Immune Systems Approach Fatma Masooma Nigar Tel : +91-7398084314 Email: masoomanigar5@gmail.com Department of Computer Science,Jamia Hamdard University, Delhi, India Abstract: In today’s competitive world people across the globe post resumes over various sites of different organizations. Huge amount of documented resumes get stored. The HR manager needs the best among the stored documented resumes. The outcome of this research is a proposed architecture for classification,retreivel of the best selected resumes for the HR based on the ideas and principles of artificial immune system. Based on the research an attempt is made to automate the HR resume selection process by building an automated resume recommender system using the concepts of information extraction and artificial immune system. Keywords: Artificial immune system, information extraction, classification. 1. INTRODUCTION In today’s e-world, many of the applications are automated to ease the task carried out with accuracy. Many organizations across the globe are flooded with hundreds of resumes every month. The task of the HR manager is to create a job based on some criteria and filter out the best suitable resumes among the repository. Since the HR are having rich text of huge data, a computational tool shall help to ease down the task for them...
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...Jacob Smith Prof. Griffin English 121 17 October 2015 Stress Kills “The body releases hormones that increase the heart rate; cause rapid, shallow breathing; constrict blood vessels supplying digestive organs; and tighten muscles.” This quote comes from Deborah S. Hatrz-Seeley’s article “Chronic Stress Leads to the Six Leading Causes of Death” That’s right. That quote isn’t the effect of a heart attack or some other drastic health problem, those symptoms are just some of the things that come along with stress in the human body. The effects mentioned in Seeley’s article are after a person experiences something like a moderate car accident or being chased by something that could do harm (Chronic). In a situation like this, the body enters a so called “fight or flight” mode which helps the person get away from the situation safely, but once the danger has depleted the person goes in the “rest and digest” mode. Although this is a good and natural thing for the body to do, for most men today, they skip this mode and the stress from the moderate event becomes turns it into a more serious, chronic stress (Chronic). Also, in Seeley’s article and according to the American Psychological Association, “Chronic stress is linked to the six leading causes of death: heart disease, cancer, lung ailments, accidents, cirrhosis of the liver and suicide. And more than 75 percent of all physician office visits are for stress-related ailments and complaints.” These...
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...ABSTRACT Pneumococcal diseases are responsible for killing at least one million children under the age of five every year: over 70% of these deaths are in developing countries. This total is greater than that due to malaria, AIDS and measles combined. Streptococcus pneumoniae has over 90 serotypes, out of which eight are included in the 10-valent Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (Synflorix) currently in use in Kenya. Pneumococci are highly diverse and serotype prevalence is dynamic based on age, time period and geographical area. There is no published data on serotypes found in Nairobi and other areas in Kenya except the coastal region. It is therefore possible that these serotypes are different from those included in the vaccine, subjecting the immunogenicity of the vaccine among Kenyan infants to doubt. Since its launch for free public use in February, 2011increasing number of children has been immunized, yet, it was not clear to what extent the vaccine is protective. This study therefore evaluated the immunogenicity of the vaccine by measuring serum concentration of IgG antibodies among infants immunized with PCV-10 at the Mbagathi District Hospital (MDH). It also investigated; the vaccine herd effect on study infants biological mothers and factors that affect the vaccine immunogenicity. It was a cross-sectional study where infants that completed 3-doses of PCV-10 had IgG antibodies to serotype-specific capsular polysaccharide measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The...
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...Vaccines are used to help your body prevent infections that can be harmful or potentially life threatening. There are many people who lack knowledge about vaccinations. Many of these people who lack knowledge are people who also do not want their children to have vaccines because of what they may have heard about vaccines. This article discussed many of the important facts about vaccines. The important facts discussed include the how vaccinations work, different types of vaccinations, safety of vaccinations, as well as recommended schedules for vaccinations. (Kaneshiro, 2014) The article discussed the different types of vaccines which are live, killed, toxoid, and biosynthetic. Vaccines are used to help your body to prevent infections and diseases...
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...Herd immunity occurs when the majority of the population is immune through vaccination against a disease or virus making it tough for the disease to spread throughout the population because there are only a couple people that aren’t immune. Herd immunity benefits those who can’t be vaccinated which are mostly made up of young children, the ill, and those who have immune system problems. It is beneficial to have herd immunity because it can stop the disease from spreading in a population. However, when not enough of the population is immune to the disease herd immunity will disappear leading to the continued spread of the disease. Among those who are not immune are children whose parents refuse to vaccinate due to religious beliefs or because of a misunderstanding of vaccinations ( ). I believe that children who are not vaccinated should be allowed or required to attend public school, but I believe that it is in the childs and populations best interest to have those who don’t have a medical issue to get vaccinated. Herd immunity protects the rest of the population from a disease spreading so as long as the majority of the students in the school are vaccinated then it shouldn’t be a problem for the rest of the population. However, it will be a major problem for the children who are not vaccinated because they have an increased risk at acquiring diseases that could be prevented by a vaccine ( ). If there are a lot of children who are not being vaccinated then this could lead...
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...Introduction An anaphylactic reaction (anaphylaxis) is a sudden, severe allergic reaction that affects multiple areas of the body. Affected areas of the body may include the skin, mouth, lungs, heart, or gut (digestive system). Anaphylaxis can be life-threatening. This condition requires immediate medical attention, and sometimes hospitalization. What are the causes? This condition is caused by exposure to a substance that your child is allergic to (allergen). In response to this exposure, the body releases proteins (antibodies) and other compounds, such as histamine, into the bloodstream. This causes swelling in certain tissues and loss of blood pressure to important areas, such as the heart and lungs. Common allergens that can cause anaphylaxis include: Medicines. Foods, especially peanuts, wheat, shellfish, milk, and eggs. Insect bites or stings. Blood or parts of blood, including plasma, immunoglobulins, or serum. Chemicals, such as dyes, latex, and contrast material that is used for medical tests. What increases the risk? This condition is more likely to occur in children who have: Allergies. Had anaphylaxis before. A family history of anaphylaxis. Certain medical conditions, including asthma and eczema. What are the signs or symptoms? Symptoms of anaphylaxis include: Nasal congestion. Headache. Flushed face. Tingling in the mouth. An itchy, red rash. Swelling of the eyes, lips, face, or tongue. Swelling of the back of the mouth and the throat. Wheezing. A hoarse voice...
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...In the United States, 90% of parents vaccinate their children and follow the recommended schedule. That is about twenty-eight immunizations against fourteen different diseases in the first two years of life. But, at least 10% of parents skip or delay some shots, and around 1% do not vaccinate at all "Vaccines-Calling the Shots". Most people have gotten at least vaccinated once in their lives. Doctors use vaccines as sort of a boot camp for immune systems from adults to small children. The way it works is by using a dead or weakened virus that would imitate the real virus if it attacks. The immune system responds by attack to virus and leaving behind white blood cells that know how to fight the virus now. Vaccines came from Dr. Edward Jenner. He was the first man to deliberately inoculate people with a mild, non-fatal disease called "cowpox" that came from a similar strain to smallpox, thus making people immune to the virus. He called his technique "vaccine” from "vacca" Latin for cow "Vaccines-Calling the Shots". The U.S. should make it mandatory for all children to be vaccinated, some reasons are that easily preventable diseases are starting to show up, they keep people from getting sick, and prevents the fragile structure of herd immunity from collapsing . To begin with, easily preventable diseases that were once rare in the United States (US) are beginning to appear again, due to the decline in vaccination rates. Around the year 2013 an unvaccinated man returned from a...
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