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Sejarah singkat menegenai Romania yang merupakan sebuah negara yang terletak di Tenggara benua Eropa. Berbatasan langsung dengan Ukraina dan Bulgaria. Dengan ibukota Bucharest. Romania menjadi anggota resmi EU pada 1 Januari 2007. Dalam perdagangan internasionalnya, 5 jenis barang yang paling banyak diekspor oleh Romania adalah mobil, bagian-bagian kendaraan, kawat, minyak olahan, dan ban karet. Sedangkan 5 jenis barang yang paling banyak diimpor oleh Romania adalah minyak mentah, obat-obatan, bagian-bagian kendaraan, minyak olahan dan kawat. I. PDB per kapita Romania (1990-2009)

Dari grafik di atas, dapat dilihat bahwa pada tahun 1990 sampai tahun 1999 PDB per kapita Romania mengalami fluktuasi dengan rata-rata 1306.82. Pada tahun 1990-1993, Romania megalami penurunan PDB per kapita yang cukup signifikan, ini diakibatkan karena penyesuaian pemerintah baru Romania yang menggantikan kepemimpinan Nicolae Ceaușescu, yang jatuh karena adanya Revolusi Romania pada Desember 1989 yang berujung pada sidang dan pengeksekusian Ceaușescu yang telah memipin Romania selama 42 tahun. Hal ini juga sebagai akhir dari rezim komunisme di Romania. National Salvation Front (NSF), partai yang kala itu terpilih untuk menggantikan Ceaușescu memilih untuk bangkit sedikit demi sedikit dengan menanamkan paham neoliberalisme; mendukung kebijakan ekonomi seperti kepemilikan pribadi, deregulasi, free trade, serta meminimalisir peran pemerintah untuk meningkatkan sektor swasta dalam perekonomian; yang pada akhir tahun 1990 mampu mengembalikan nilai leu sebesar 60%, kepemilikan tanah juga dibagikan pada swasta. Pertumbuhan ekonomi juga terus terjadi pada 2000-2007, hal ini didukung oleh ekspor Romania ke EU, terutama ke Italia dan Jerman, serta investasi di Romania yang membaik. Pada tahun 2006, terjadi pertumbuhan tingkat pendapatan tertinggi di Romania. Tetapi walaupun begitu, tigkat pendapatan di Romania masih merupakan negara dengan pendapatan perbulan terendah disbanding negara-negara di EU. Romania semakin mengalami pertumbuhan ekonomi dibangding saat rezim komunis berlangsung. Sektor industri di Romania semakin mengalami kemajuan dan memberikan dampak yang signifikan pada PDB negara. Pengalihan penggunaan dan pembaharuan teknologi di Romania menjadikan sektor industri ini mampu mengekspor barang-barang dengan nilai yang lebih baik. Tidak seperti masa komunisme dimana sektor industry tidak memiliki kualitas yang merata di Romania. II. Krisis Ekonomi di Romania pada 1990-2009
Pada tahun 2007-2008 terjadi Global Financial Crisis atau disebut juga 2008 Financial Crisis. Dimana tingkat bunga pinjaman yang harus dibayar terus meningkat. Hingga apabila tingkat bunga pinjaman tersebut sudah melebihi tingkat pertumbuhan di sebuah negara, pada saat itulah pemerintah seharusnya mengambil langkah-langkah seperti mengurangi pembelanjaannya hingga tidak perlu melakukan peminjaman, dengan meningkatkan pajak, atau meminjam dana kepada IMF.
Sedangkan pada awal tahun 2004 pemerintahan Romania sedang meningkatkan pegeluarannya untuk para pensinan dan layanan sosial. Ketika Global Financial Crisis sampai di Romania, pemerintah menganggap bahwa krisis terebut tidak akan mempengaruhi Romania dan akan menghilang dengan cepat.. Walapun indikasi yang sangat jelas bahwa krisis akan menghantam Romania dengan adanya hutang Romania yang semakin banyak dan defisit yang terus terjadi. Krisis ekonomi sangat mempengaruhi pemerintah maupun swasta. Akibat dari Global Financial Crisis, banyak perusahaan di Romania dan negara-negara lain yang mengalami insolvensi, dimana perusahaan-perusahaan tersebut tidak dapat membayar hutang-hutangnya. Tetapi pihak swasta yang cepat beradaptasi dan bertindak hingga akhirnya hutang swasta terus berkurang pada tahun 2010. Ekspor yang sempat menurun pada 2009, tetapi karena tindakan yang cepat dari para pihak swasta, ekspor kembali stabil dan terus meningkat. Sedangkan pemerintah tertinggal dalam mengatasi Global Financial Crisis hingga menimbulkan masalah kesejahteraan hidup masyarakat Romania yang terus menurun.

III. Kebijakan Romania Untuk Mengatasi Global Financial Crisis
Pemerintah Romania menerapkan manajemen krisis yang menstabilisasikan secara makro dan terstruktur. Setelah adanya krisis, Romania mengeluarkan kebijakan untuk mengurangi perbelanjaannya dan meningkatkan tarif pajak. Contohnya dengan mengurangi 25% upah pekerja sipil, pengurangan sebesar 15% unemployment benefits and child benefits. Penggabungan, pengorganisasian kembali, ataupun penghapusan instansi pemerintahan. Penggunaan bahan bakar minyak juga dikurangi hingga 50% serta pengurangan konsumsi sektor lainnya sebessar 20%. Selain itu pemerintah Romania juga mengawasi dengan ketat agar tidak terjadi penggelapan dana pajak yang diterima pemerintah. Yaitu dengan meningkatkan control daerah perbatasan, mengawasi ekspor dan impor produk, khususnya produk yang dikenakan pajak seperti alcohol, rokok dan BBM.
Pemerintah Romania dalam mengtasi insolvensi dari perusahaan-perusahaan swasta maupun instasi pemerintahannya membentuk pengadilan khusus dan membentuk departemen yang khusus untuk mengatasi insolvensi ini. Romania juga menghindari penggunaan kekerasan dan menyediakan kebijakan out-of-court dimana para kreditur dan debitur dapat menyelesaikan cara terbaik untuk menyelesaikan hutang-piutang. Selain itu Romania juga gencar dalam memberlakukan likuidasi, pengorganisasian kembali,penggabungan maupun penutupan perusahaan swasta dan instasi negara.
Pemerintah Romania juga memberikan “private investment stimulus” yaitu pemberian subsidi kepada perusahaan-perusahaan yang dibagi menjadi kategori seperti “sustainable development” dan”regional development”. Subsidi ini bukan bertujuan untuk meningkatkan persaingan atau untuk mempermudah penanaman investasi, tetapi untuk menciptakan kembali lingkungan investasi yang sempat hilang di Romania akibat dari Global Financial Crisis.
Pemerintah Romania juga melakukan pinjaman dana kepada IMF untuk menutupi hutang-hutangnya. Tetapi pinjaman dari IMF ini memiliki persyaratan yaitu pemerintah Romania harus meyetarakan upah para pekerja di institusi negara. Alasan mengapa dikeluarkannya persyaratan ini adalah bahwa IMF ingin memastikan bahwa pemerintah Romania dapat benar-benar mengurangi pembelanjaannya yaitu dengan memiliki control penuh terhadap instasi pemerintah. Yaitu dengan kembali memberikan kuasa penuh pada pemerintah seperti pada rezim komunisme.

IV. Dampak Kebijakan yang Diimplementasikan Oleh Romania
Kebijakan Romania berupa pengurangan dana pembelanjaan, pemotongan gaji karyawan sipil dan benefit karyawan di Romania menyebabkan: * Upah para karyawan sipil di Romania lebih rendah dari karyawan swasta * Jumlah karyawan sipil Romania berkurang sebanyak 200,000 orang * Pengalihan sistem birokrasi menjadi berbasis teknologi menghemat pengeluaran Romania sebesar 700 juta Euro pada tahun 2010.
Sedangkan dampak yang dirasakan ketika Romania mendapat bantuan dari IMF adalah: * Romania mampu menekan laju inflasi yang terjadi di Romania * Pembelanjaan negara memang benar-benar berkurang akibat adanya bantuan modal yang diberikan IMF.
Selain efek positif tersebut di atas, Romania juga merasakan dampak negatif akibat menerima pinjaman dari IMF, dimana kita mengetahui bahwa adanya persyaratan yaitu adanya keseragaman gaji para pekerja sektor pemerintahan. Pekerjaan yang dianggap ‘setara’ akan menerima gaji yang sama. Seperti yang sebelumnya sudah dijelaskan, bahwa hal ini mengimplikasikan bahwa IMF mengembalikan sebagaimana Romania pada zaman komunisme.
Hal ini dianggap tidak akan memberikan hasil yang efektif dalam mengurangi krisis dalam negeri karena mengabaikan hubungan antara pemerintahan dengan pekerja atau buruh yang sudah dibangun sejak jatuhnya pemerintahan Ceaușescu.

V. Analisa
Romania dalam menghadapi Global Financial Crisis pada 2008-2009 mampu dengan cepat mengatasinya dengan mengimplementasikan crisis management secara makro dan pendekatan secara terstruktur. Romania melihat bahwa dengan terjadinya krisis maka perlu adanya bantuan atau dukungan dari institusi internasional untuk melindungi sektor pendidikan, kesehatan, jaminan sosial, administrasi maupun sektor keuangan. Untuk itu Romania mengambil langkah untuk meminta bantuan dana ataupun modal kepada IMF yang dimana Romania harus mengikuti persyaratan dari IMF. Dana dari IMF pada akhirnya mampu menyeimbangkan kembali ekonomi secara makro dan mengembalikan pertumbuhan ekonomi Romania. Seiring waktu, eksport yang terus bertambah dan pemulihan permintaan konsumen serta investasi.
Walaupun pada salah satu pihak, dengan adanya bantuan dana dari IMF tingkat pengangguran di Romania mengingkat dan hal ini juga dikarenakan adanya pencabutan unemployment benefit yang dilakukan pemerintah Romania. Penyetaraan gaji para pekerja sipil atau buruh di Romania juga menjadi kontroversi. Dimana seharusnya pemerintah melakukan negosiasi dengan para buruh mengenai perubahan upah yang akan mereka terima sebagai konsekuensi dari pengimplementasian kebijakan pemerintah. Walaupun akan sulit untuk mencari jalan tengah mengenai upah buruh yang setara karena para buruh akan memiliki permintaan standar yang berbeda-beda.
Seharusnya Romania dapat menghindari krisis ekonomi ini dengan cara yang pertama adalah mengurangi pembelanjaannya yang sangat tinggi yang dilakukan sejak tahun 2004. Dan yang kedua adalah adanya pemikiran bahwa krisis yang masuk tidak akan mempengaruhi Romania, kemudian tidak mengambil langkah apapun. Seharusnya pemerintahan langsung mengambil kebijakan untuk mengatasi krisis ekonomi tersebut. Hingga tidak terjadinya peningkatan bunga yang sangat pesat hingga melebihi pertumbuhan ekonomi di Romania.
Pada saat sekarang adalah bagaimana Romania mempertahankan laju pertumbuhan ekonominya agar stabil dan meningkatkan standar hidup rakyatnya dengan tetap memenuhi target dalam financial. Dimana hal tersebut merupakan tanggup jawab seluruh komponen masyarakat dan institusi khususnya pemerintahan dan The National Bank of Romania.
Agar kestabilan ekonomi terjaga diperlukan kebijakan yang tegas untuk mengurangi tingkat korupsi yang terjadi di Romania. Yaitu agar mengurasi krisis politik dan mengembalikan kedaulatan dari hukum yang berlaku.

VI. Kesimpulan
Kebijakan dari pemerintah Romania sudah cukup mengembalikan kestabilan ekonomi Romania, walaupun pemerintah lambat dalam mengambil keputusan hingga terjadi krisis yang lebih parah di Romania. Kestabilan ini masih dianggap hanya akan berlansung dalam jangka waktu yang singkat. Sedangkan untuk jangka panjang Romania perlu mengevaluasi ulang sistem biroksasi dan ekonominya. Pemerintah harus lebih cepat tanggap agar tidak ada lagi pemotongan upah karyawan sipil atau buruh hingga adanya peningkatan pengangguran di Romania. Karena lebih cepat kebijakan yang ditetapkan, kerugian yang dirasakan akan lebih cepat teratasi dan dapat meminimalisi pihak yang merasa dirugikan.

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...What are the UK’s major exports and imports? Who are the UK’s major trading partners? What trade theories can explain these patterns? In order to understand UK’s position in world trade, what its exports and imports are, and which its major trading partners are, the history of its economy and position in world trade has to be contemplated prior. The structure of the British economy has been transforming through time, in addition to the nation’s trade regarding both its goods and services. Britain was the first industrial nation; this explains the dominion it had in world trade. As this is the case, trade theories help explain the nation’s pattern of trade, considering its offer in knowledge and technology. Since the start of the 1900s Britain was capable to settle its debt on a multilateral basis. For example, UK would resolve part of its large deficit with the USA through the surpluses it earned with “Empire Countries”, such as India, with whom the USA, had deficit. By the Nineteenth century, Britain’s major sources of imports in order of significance were: The United States with cereals, meat and cotton; India with tea and wheat; Australia and South Africa, with wool and meat, and Canada with grain, timber and flour. UK’s trading partners were often countries it had colonial links. Its location in north-western Europe also accounted for some strategic trading partners, which were: France south across the English Channel; the Republic of Ireland west across the Irish...

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International Trade Economics

...International Trade Economics Assignment 1 Question 1 a. Trade in services occur when there is no physical movement which is opposite to trade in goods. Based on case study of South African citizen visiting NZ, the modes of Trade in Services that would result from the transactions and activities of this individual are: mode1. Cross-border when South African citizen purchase a ticket online (IT services), mode2. Consumption abroad which has result after person has moved abroad as tourists to consume the respective services and mode4. Movement of natural persons that has accrued when person have had attended business meeting in NZ. In other words this mode can be described as supplying by nationals of one member in the territory of another, requiring the physical presence of the service provider in the host country or skilled worker using his services in another country. b. Trade between the countries, economic cooperation, expansion of communications, international division of labour bear in itself notable mutual benefits for trading courtiers. The world economy is a result of economic interaction and integration. To penetrate into an essence of economic relations between the different countries, it is necessary to highlight the most common factor that would result in trade. The gravity model, in its basic form, assumes that only size and distance are important for trade in the following way: Tij = A x Yi x Yj /Dij • where Tij is the value of trade...

Words: 2041 - Pages: 9