Introduction to Psychological Testing
Andrea K. Clark
06/15/2015
PSY/475

Introduction to Psychological Testing The goal of this paper is the summarization of key suppositions and basic questions related to psychological testing. A definition of the term ‘test’ shall be provided, as well as explanations of the main test types and identification of the chief users and usages of these tests. Additionally, there shall be a discussion of a comparison and contrast of reliability and validity beliefs and how they influence psychological testing.
Definition of Test The definition of a test is “a critical examination, observation, or evaluation” that generates information (Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2015). Tests are utilized to identify, characterize or measure an individual’s or group’s knowledge, intellect, skills, capabilities or aptitudes. In the psychological fields, tests are assessment tools that standardize these characterizations, measurements, and identifications. Psychological tests are “a systematic procedure for observing behavior and describing it with the aid of numerical scales or fixed categories” (Hogan, 2007, p. 39).
Main Test Types, Chief Usages, and Users
According to Hogan (2007), “we classify tests into five major categories: mental ability, achievement, personality, interests, and neuropsychological tests, with several subdivisions within some of the major categories” (p. 41). There are also different test classification methods: standardized, non-standardized, self-reports, behavioral observation, maximal performance, projective, objective, subjective, and dimensional measurements. Testing often encompasses the utilization of formal tests, including checklists or questionnaires, called “norm-referenced” tests (Hogan, 2007, p. 10). Typically, this means these are standardized tests that provide a method of similarity evaluation against the performance of a larger group and are employable regardless of the test takers’ geolocation or test administrator. However, non-standardized testing is less formal and more common, and usually constructed for the purpose of a singular administration, such as a college examination. Mental tests are about cognitive functioning, typically focusing on norm-referenced intelligence evaluations similar to the standardized ACT (American College Testing) given to groups of high school students. Achievement testing, whether to an individual or group, are criterion-referenced that rate the acquirement of knowledge, abilities and skills in a specific area, such as a foreign language acquisition test. According to Hogan (2007), “achievement tests are easily the most widely used of all types of tests” (p. 6). Personality tests consist of projective tests and self-report inventories and are useful for employment screenings, evaluations of psychological therapies, identifying psychological difficulties, and observing alterations in personality. “One of the most common self-report inventories is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, or MMPI” (Cherry, para. 2). Projective testing uses ambiguous stimuli to ascertain qualitative information about the individual. Vocational interest tests are useful for exploring criterion-based aptitudes, much like high school guidance counselors utilize to guide students’ educational choices. Finally, neuropsychological testing is helpful for evaluating cognitive functioning and measuring mental capabilities. Typically, physicians and psychologists utilize neurological testing, such as a test for “memory for verbal and figural material, psychomotor coordination, and abstract thinking” (Hogan, 2007, p. 8).
Key Suppositions and Basic Questions Related to Psychological Testing
There are common assumptions regarding tests. One is that tests measure what they are supposed to measure, and inferences depicting a representation about test takers are appropriate, which means an additional assumption that individuals comprehend test elements similarly. Another common assumption is that an individual’s behaviors will persist unchanged even over long periods of time. Further, some assumptions must be made about whether or not individuals can self-report about themselves honestly and accurately, including self-reports on feelings and thoughts. Thinking that testing can provide proof of trait stability, quantification of traits, identification of trait differences and their importance, and the correlation of trait measurements to actual behaviors and cognitive processes are fundamental assumptions. It would be false to assume testing provides accurate and complete quantitative psychological data concerning cognitive and behavioral processes. Tests only provide samples of these cognitive and behavioral processes. While testing has a usefulness for psychological assessments, no psychological test method has a guarantee of complete accuracy. However, conclusions or inferences can be drawn from the tests’ information and utilized as a basis for evaluations and assessments. Therefore, questions arise about the utilization and interpretations of tests. “Questions related to reliability, validity, and norms are the most basic questions we ask about tests” (Hogan, 2007, p. 17).
Comparison and Contrast of Reliability and Validity and Their influence As stated earlier, no testing method can guarantee complete accuracy, but utilizing psychological testing can help create and make important decisions regarding individuals or groups. Tests need to be fair so that what they measure is reliable and has validity. Determining if the tests are fair, measurements are stable, and interpretation of norms relies on the test’s development. Analyzing the test’s differential and historical perspectives is crucial to understanding whether or not its norms, validity, and reliability are more accurately predictive. The development of the test, including its theoretical focus for defining populations, specific attributes, trait affects or characteristics, effects the test's method of design. Validity means a test does measure what it claims to measure. Reliability means the amount of stable and consistent results provided by an assessment tool. Measurements need to be repeatable, accurate, efficient and meaningful and allow for standard errors of measurement caused by situational influences to ascertain reliability. Validity and reliability are a matter of degree, and their influence on testing is vital. Without validity and reliability, a test’s usefulness and quality are disputable.
Conclusion
Although psychological tests can vary, all sound psychological tests have commonalities and must be valid and reliable. Testing characteristically samples behaviors believed to gauge a thought or an attribute to calculate a result. Testing includes behavioral samples attained utilizing standardized settings and conditions while employing structured scoring rules to confirm all assessors will record equivalent responses in an identical manner. Though every psychological test has these qualities, not every test demonstrates these qualities uniformly. Certain tests might incorporate representative behavioral sampling more than others. Other tests might rely upon scoring rules that are highly structured and explicit while other tests might utilize broader guidelines. Additionally, various tests might be less conducive to standardized condition administration, such as individually administered tests versus group-administered tests. The types of tests utilized depend upon the user, and the clinical, educational, research and personnel fields may employ multiple types of testing methods. All tests require the performance of a behavior to be able to predict outcomes or measure attributes, but can vary regarding psychometric quality, content, formatting, administration, scoring, interpretation and required behavior performance.

References
Cherry, K. (2015). What is personality testing? Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/personality-testing/f/personality-testing.htm
Hogan, T. P. (2007). Psychological testing: a practical introduction (2nd ed.) Retrieved from the university of Phoenix eBook collection.
Merriam-Webster, Inc. (2015). Definition of test. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/test