...Why Has IPO Underpricing Increased Over Time? Tim Loughran University of Notre Dame P.O. Box 399 Notre Dame IN 46556-0399 219.631.8432 voice Loughran.9@nd.edu and Jay R. Ritter University of Florida P.O. Box 117168 Gainesville FL 32611-7168 352.846.2837 voice ritter@dale.cba.ufl.edu http://bear.cba.ufl.edu/ritter March 18, 2002 We wish to thank Hsuan-Chi Chen, Craig Dunbar, Todd Houge, Josh Lerner, Alexander Ljungqvist, Donghang Zhang, two anonymous referees, and seminar participants at Boston College, Southern Methodist University, Texas Christian University, and the Universities of Colorado, Houston, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Notre Dame, and Pennsylvania for useful comments. Chris Barry, Laura Field, Paul Gompers, Josh Lerner, Scott Smart, Li-Anne Woo, and Chad Zutter generously provided IPO data. Bruce Foerster assisted us in ranking underwriters. Underwriter ranks are available online at http://bear.cba.ufl.edu/ritter/rank.htm. Donghang Zhang supplied useful research assistance. Why Has IPO Underpricing Increased Over Time? Abstract In the 1980s, the average first-day return on initial public offerings (IPOs) was 7%. The average first-day return doubled to almost 15% during 1990-1998, before jumping to 65% during the internet bubble years of 1999-2000. Part of the increase can be attributed to changes in the composition of the companies going public. We attribute much of the increase in underpricing, however, to previously latent agency...
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...journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jbf Underpricing of IPOs: Firm-, issue- and country-specific characteristics Peter-Jan Engelen a,*, Marc van Essen b a b Utrecht University, School of Economics, Utrecht, The Netherlands Erasmus University, Rotterdam School of Management, Rotterdam, The Netherlands a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t Using a large firm-level dataset of 2920 IPOs from 21 countries we examine the impact of country-level institutional characteristics on the underpricing of IPOs. Through hierarchical linear modeling we are able to control for firm-specific and issue-specific characteristics and test whether country-specific institutional characteristics add explanatory power to explain the level of underpricing. Our results show that about 10% of the variation in the level of underpricing is between countries. The quality of a country’s legal framework, as measured by its level of investor protection, the overall quality of its legal system and its level of legal enforcement, reduces the level of underpricing significantly. Ó 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Article history: Received 4 July 2009 Accepted 6 January 2010 Available online 11 January 2010 JEL classification: G30 G32 G38 K22 Keywords: IPO Underpricing Legal framework Investor protection Multi-level modeling 1. Introduction When companies go public, a well-documented phenomenon is the underpricing of the initial public offering (IPO). On average, shares seem to be offered at a...
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...undergraduate degree. Contents: 1. Introduction 1 2.1 Background to the IPOs……….………...............................................................1 2.2 Problem Discussion………….……...…………………….………………….....4 2.3 Contribution of the study……………………………………….……...………..5 2. Literature Review 6 2.1 Lockup Agreements…………………………………………………………….6 2.2 The Stabilization process-price support………………………………………...7 2.3 A theoretical background to underpricing………………………...……………8 2.4 The adverse selection……………………………………………………...…....8 2.5 How can underwriters affect underpricing………………….……………..……9 2.6 The role of institutional investors……………………………………….……..11 2.7 Issuers’ holdings……………………………………………….………………11 2.8 Underwriters’ purchases…………………………………………………….…12 3. Development of Hypotheses 13 3.1 Information asymmetry & Underwriters’ holdings impact on IPO price………13 3.2 The issue of realizing profits……………………………………………………15 4. Methodology 16 4.1 Dataset and Measurement of Variables…………………………………………16 4.2 Empirical Models……………………………………………………………….17 5. Empirical Results 19 5.1 Trading in the Short Term………………………………………………………19 5.2 The information advantage issue………………………………………………..19 6. Conclusion 20 Reference 21-22 Appendix 23-38 Introduction: 1.1 IPOs background...
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...environment affecting IPO decision” BRM Project – IKEA + IPO Abstract This research is aimed at developing a new model that should be able to determine for each privately owned company whether going public is a possibility for attracting new capital. Research upon IPOs resulted in variables of which a conceptual and hypothesized model were created. A meta-analysis and case study should determine the relevance and reliability of the model. Thereafter, a final model can be composed which can be applied to IKEA Group, our target company for the research, in order to obtain the final result; IKEA Group is qualified for an IPO, or not. Table of contents Introduction II 1. Rationale 1 2. Situational Analysis 2 2.1 Initial Public Offering 2 2.2 Advantages 3 2.3 Disadvantages 3 3. Theoretical Background 4 3.1 Initial Public Offering 4 3.2 Product market characteristics and performance 4 3.3 Industry characteristics 5 3.4 Initial underpricing 5 3.5 Hot and cold markets and IPO waves 6 3.6 Long-run performance 6 4. Conceptual Model 8 4.1 Hypotheses 9 4.1.1 Hypotheses Independent variables 9 4.1.2 Moderating Variables 9 5. Research design 11 5.1 Unit of analysis 11 5.2 Meta-analysis 11 5.2.1 The hypothesized model 11 5.2.2 The implementation 13 5.3 Case study 15 5.4 The implementation of the results 15 Bibliography 16 Appendices 20 * * Introduction Introduction The consideration of undertaking an IPO is one of the most...
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...discussions with the investment bank of Crowe & Mallard. The company has a working relationship with Robin Perry, the underwriter who assisted with the company’s previous bond offering. Crowe & Mallard have helped numerous small companies in the IPO process, so Larissa and Dan feel confident with this choice. Robin begins by telling Larissa and Dan about the process. Although Crowe & Mallard charged an underwriter fee of 4 percent on the bond offering, the underwriter fee is 7 percent on all initial stock offerings of the size of East Coast Yachts’ initial offering (Ross etal, 2013). Introduction Although Crowe & Mallard charged an underwriter fee of 4 percent on the bond offering, the underwriter fee is 7 percent on all initial stock offerings of the size of East Coast Yachts’ initial offering. Robin tells Larissa and Dan that the company can expect to pay about $1,800,000 in legal fees and expenses, $15,000 in SEC registration fees, and $20,000 in other filing fees. Additionally, to be listed on the NASDAQ, the company must pay $100,000. There are also transfer agent fees of $8,500 and engraving expenses of $525,000. The company should also expect to pay $75,000 for other expenses associated with the IPO. Finally, Robin tells Larissa and Dan that to file with the SEC, the company must provide three years’...
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...The Post-Issue Operating Performance of IPO Firms Overview of the article As there were still few attempts to measure operating performance of IPO firms at that time, Jain and Kini (1994) wrote this article in a bid to focus on this particular issue by study on the IPO firms during 1976-1988. They investigate the change in operating performance of firms after going public through IPOs which they find that IPO firms show a decline in post-issue operating performance. The main reasons that explain the decline in the post-issue operating performance of IPO firms are the existence of information asymmetry and/or a conflict of interest between the existing entrepreneurs and the new shareholders. The authors separate the reasons into 3 points: (1) the agency cost increases when a private firm transfers to public and the reduction in ownership stake consequently leads to the agency problem, (2) the window-dressing made by managers causes overstate pre-IPO performance and understate post-IPO performance, (3) the timing that issue stock in periods of unusually good performance levels while they know that the good performance is not sustainable. This article is divided into four parts; Part 1 presents the sources of collected information on IPO firms and the criteria used for selecting them. So, their finally sample consists of 682 firms. The authors also stated that all significant tests are based on the two-tailed Wilcoxon signed rank tests, assuming that the observations are independent...
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...MANAGER REPUTATION, UNDERPRICING LONGAND LONG-RUN PERFORMANCE OF INITIAL PUBLIC OFFERINGS: EVIDENCE FROM THE SINGAPORE IPO MARKET VOON PEIJUN (Bachelor of Business Administration (Hons), NUS) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF SCIENCE (BUSINESS) DEPART DEPARTMENT OF FINANCE AND ACCOUNTING NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2009 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my warmest gratitude to Professor Michael Shih for his patient guidance and encouragement all this while. A very big thank you, Sir. I would also like to take this opportunity to thank my family for their love and concern all these years. Thank you Dad, Mum and Brother. Without their support, I would not have come so far. Thank you! Voon Peijun 2009 Page i ABSTRACT The study explores the role of issue managers in the initial public offering (IPO) process. Empirical research shows that IPOs are associated with two significant market anomalies: short-run underpricing puzzle and long-run underperformance phenomenon. This paper examines the reputational influence of issue managers on the two anomalies. Employing the newly developed ‘twelve-month rolling’ reputation ranking approach, our study is the first to furnish a comprehensive ranking of all the issue managers with a substantial presence in Singapore. Based on a sample of 384 IPOs listed on the Singapore Exchange between January 1, 1997 and August 22, 2008, we find evidence of prevalent short-run underpricing and long-run underperformance...
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...JETBLUE AIRWAYS IPO VALUATION Teaching Note This case examines the April 2002, decision of JetBlue management to price the initial public offering of JetBlue stock during one of the worst periods in airline history. The case outlines JetBlue’s innovative strategy and the associated strong financial performance over its initial two years. Students are invited to value the stock and take a position on whether the current $25–$26 per share filing range is appropriate. The case is designed to showcase corporate valuation using discounted cash flow and peer-company market multiples. The epilogue details the 67 percent first-day rise in JetBlue stock from the $27 offer price. With such a backdrop, students are exposed to one of the well-known finance anomalies—the IPO underpricing phenomenon—and are invited to critically discuss various proposed explanations. The case provides opportunities for the instructor to develop any of the following teaching objectives, • Review the institutional aspects of the equity issuance transaction. • Explore the costs and benefits associated with public share offerings. • Develop an appreciation for the challenges of valuing unseasoned firms. • Hone corporate valuation skills, particularly using market multiples. • Evaluate the received explanations of various finance anomalies, such as the IPO underpricing phenomenon. Study Questions 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages...
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...this assignment is to solve and study IPO in detail and provide the necessary solutions to it. Internet has been also used with referencing to seek out the solutions. Table of Contents Content | Page no: | Question A | 4 | Question B | 5 | Question C | 10 | Question D | 12 | References | | Question A: The IPO process is characterized by information asymmetries. Explain how these asymmetries may be reduced through the book-building process. IPO (initial public offering):- The first sale of stock by a private company to the public. IPOs are often issued by smaller, younger companies seeking the capital to expand, but can also be done by large privately owned companies looking to become publicly traded.IPO process, are asymmetrically informed as managers and internal subjects posses private information about the firm's future prospects which may be not completely known to external investors. The process by which an underwriter attempts to determine at what price to offer an IPO based on demand from institutional investors. A company issuing an IPO through book building method follows the following steps: * A leading merchant banker is nominated by the IPO issuing company for book building, known as Book-Runner. * The concerned company then announces the total number of IPO shares that it is willing to issue along...
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...governance variables and IPO pricing. Results show that managerial ownership is positively related to both offer price and market price premium, which is consistent with a high level of managerial ownership reducing agency costs leading to a closer alignment of interests between managers and shareholders. High blockholder ownership is positively related to offer price premium but not market price premium which implies that underwriters, but not investors, perceive that the quality of the IPO is associated with blockholder ownership. Board size is negatively associated with both measures of IPO pricing, suggesting that smaller boards are better. The other conventional corporate governance variables are not significant. Family ownership and family management are negatively related to both offer price and market price premium, which is consistent with the suggestion that the lack of separation of ownership and management causes family-controlled firms to suffer from cloudy financial vision, resulting in a negative relationship with pricing. However, family chairman is positively associated with offer price premium which implies that underwriters view family leadership on the board as beneficial. The other family governance variables are not significant. None of the board expertise variables examined are significantly related to IPO pricing. I. Introduction The launching of an initial public offering (IPO) is a pivotal event in a firm's history. In the pre-IPO period, firms tend...
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...ROSETTA STONE: pricing the 2009 IPO Teaching Note This case examines the April 2009 decision of Rosetta Stone management to price the initial public offering of Rosetta Stone stock during one of the most difficult periods in capital-raising history. The case outlines Rosetta Stone’s unique language-learning strategy and its associated strong financial performance. Students are invited to value the stock and take a position on whether the current $15 to $17 per share filing range is appropriate. The case is designed to showcase corporate valuation using discounted cash flow and peer-company market multiples. The epilogue details the 40% first-day rise in Rosetta Stone stock from the $18 offer price. With this backdrop, students are exposed to a well-known finance anomaly—the IPO underpricing phenomenon—and are invited to critically discuss various proposed explanations. The case provides opportunities for the instructor to develop any of the following teaching objectives: * Review the institutional aspects of the equity issuance transaction. * Explore the costs and benefits associated with public share offerings. * Develop an appreciation for the challenges of valuing unseasoned firms. * Hone corporate valuation skills, particularly using market multiples. * Evaluate the received explanations of various finance anomalies, such as the IPO underpricing phenomenon. Study Questions 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages...
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...Characteristic of IPO Initial Public Offering (IPO) has lots of unique characteristics which including short-term underpricing, price stabilization, and investment banks. IPOs are always underpriced which means the pricing of IPOs often below its market value. This is because of concerns relating to liquidity and uncertainty about the level at which stock will trade. The lesser the liquid and uncertainty about the shares are, the more underpriced they will have to be in order to compensate investors for the risk they are taking. An IPO’s issuer tends to know the value of the shares than the investor so a company has to underpriced its stock to encourage investors to invest the IPO. Companies that want to venture out and start selling their shares to public have find a way to stabilize their initial share prices. One of the ways to stabilize the initial share prices is through a legal mechanism which greenshoe option. A greenshoe option is a clause that contain in the agreement of an IPO which allows the underwriters to buy up to additional 15% of company shares at the offering price. Normally the underwriter works as a liaison (like a dealer) and finding buyers to buy their shares that their client is offering. The price of the shares is determined by the sellers and the buyers. After the prices has determined, the shares are ready to sell to the public. The underwriter has to ensure that the shares do not below the offering price. Once the underwriter found there is chances...
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...EF5052(A) INVESTMENT CASE 2 Netscape’s IPO Group 7 JU Fei LIU Yao LIU Yini WU Tianyi ZHANG Xuehui ZHANG Yiyun 52752084 52815259 52750804 52748187 52700026 52738944 Netscape’s IPO Brief Introduction Netscape Communication Corporation is going to issue its initial public offering in August 9, 1995. It is a young but rapidly growing company which is founded in April 1994 and only operates for 15 months. Netscape is also going through losses and never gain profits. But in the time of rapidly developing of the Internet, Netscape now had succeeded in capturing 75% of the Web browser market by using its most popular product, Netscape Navigator. Netscape has set the industry standard and is the indisputable leader of its kind. Netscape Navigator begun to ship in December 1994. Until then, Netscape did not earn significant product revenues. And Netscape Navigator generated more than half of total revenues for the company in the first two quarters in 1995. The other main source of revenues is generated by Netscape’s server and integrated applications products. In terms of the market share, we can say that Netscape has a promising future by using its excellent Web browser, Netscape Navigator. Another reason for its promising future is the industry background that Internet is in a rapidly developing position. However, Netscape is also facing kinds of competition in every market...
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...Initial Public Offerings Jay R. Ritter Cordell Professor of Finance University of Florida Gainesville FL 32611-7168 (352) 846-2837 jritter@dale.cba.ufl.edu http://bear.cba.ufl.edu/ritter Warren Gorham & Lamont Handbook of Modern Finance Edited by Dennis Logue and James Seward reprinted (with modifications) in Contemporary Finance Digest Vol. 2, No. 1 (Spring 1998), pp. 5-30 This is the modified version. Abstract In the 1990s, thousands of firms have gone public around the world. This article surveys the market for initial public offerings (IPOs). The process of going public is discussed, with particular emphasis on how contractual mechanisms deal with potential conflicts of interest. The valuation of IPOs, bookbuilding, price stabilization, and the costs of going public are also discussed. Three empirical patterns are documented and analyzed: shortrun underpricing, hot issue markets, and long-run underperformance. This article is reprinted, with modifications, from the chapter with the same title in the Warren Gorham & Lamont Handbook of Modern Finance, edited by Dennis Logue and James Seward. The chapter in turn draws heavily on "The Market's Problems with the Pricing of Initial Public Offerings," coauthored by Roger G. Ibbotson, Jody Sindelar, and Jay R. Ritter in the 1994 Journal of Applied Corporate Finance; "Going Public," coauthored by Kathleen Weiss Hanley and Jay R. Ritter, in The New Palgrave Dictionary of Money and Finance; and especially “Initial Public Offerings...
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...How much to raise A&A Air Pty. Ltd. should consider the following factors when deciding whether to raise $75m or $90m through IPO: Resources Preparing for an IPO is a lengthy and resource intensive process that requires 12-24 months lead up time (EY, 2013). If A&A decides to raise $75m through the IPO, it would have to go through a similar process for secondary offering. This time and resource should be better invested in developing and implementing the growth strategy. The direct cost of this IPO is approximately $2.5m in administration fees plus $5.25m underwriter fees for $75m, or $6.3m for $90m. Spending the extra $1m in fees now to raise $90m, will save approximately $2.5M of administration fees of secondary offering. Investor opinion The decision to raise $90m may have a favorable effect on the IPO price, as it may indicate to investors that there is vision and plans for significant future growth. If raising additional equity a short time after IPO, the investors may feel question the need to raise more capital and may negatively influence the share price. Focus on growth If the IPO of $90m is successful, it will allow the owners to focus on the development and not be concerned by how to raise future funds (Wertz, 2013). Having necessary capital will assist A&A to start on the medium to long term development earlier and accelerate their growth. Timing and market conditions Careful timing of an equity capital raising is essential to ensure...
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