Cultural Perspectives of Japan
William Earl Barnes Jr.

Abstract Japan is an island country sited east of the mainland of Asia. It is made up of a long, slender group of islands. The four main islands are Honshu (the largest), Hokkaido, Kyushu, and Shikoku. There are more than three thousand smaller islands. Together, they have about the identical land area as the state of California. Across the Sea of Japan to its north and west are Russia and South Korea. To the east, where the sun rises, Japan borders the Pacific Ocean. The Japanese call their nation Nippon, which means “Land of the Rising Sun” Japan has a remarkable landscape. Mountains and hills cover most of the land. A chain of mountains runs down the middle of Japan. Snow-capped Mount Fuji, Japan’s highest peak, towers over Honshu Island. Swift streams flow from the mountains into the sea. Thick forests cover the mountainsides where deer and monkeys make their homes in the spring; the countryside is colored pink and white with the blossoms of plum and cherry trees. In southern Japan, summers are long and hot. In the north, winters are cold and snowy. Central Japan has an enjoyable climate, with warm summers and cool winters. The country is often shaken by volcanic explosions and earthquakes.

Japan’s first powerful rulers were chiefs from the Yamato region. During the Yamatos’ rule, many visitors from other lands came to Japan. Scholars from china brought the Chinese writing system in the 400s. They also brought the teachings of Confucius. In the 500s, the Chinese introduced the Buddhist religion. The Japanese adopted these and many other Chinese customs. Around the 700s, Japan became a primitive society. In Japan’s primitive society, nobles and warlords lived in great castles and owned large plots of land. Peasant farmers worked the land. People in the warrior class were called samurai. They lived by a strict code of honor and were very loyal. Warrior chiefs called shoguns led the emperor’s army. The shoguns became more powerful than the emperor. From 1192 until 1867, shoguns controlled Japan. European ships first arrived in Japan in the 1500s. They brought traders from Portugal, the Netherlands, England, and Spain. Shoguns of the Tokugawa household came to power in 1603. They believed that contact with other countries in the world was bad for Japan. The Tokugawas also drove out all foreigners and cut off foreign trade. Japan remained closed to foreigners for the next two hundred years. Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States Navy sailed to Japan in 1854. He convinced the shoguns to begin trading with the United States. In 1867, the shoguns were overthrown and the emperor was reinstated as the ruler of Japan. By the mid-1800s, Japan had been closed to the outside world for a long time. The Japanese had fallen behind the rest of the world in many ways. They swiftly began to catch up. Schools and industry were improved, and the army and navy were expanded. In 1931, Japanese troops took over China’s northeast province of Manchuria. Soon Japan controlled land as far away as Indonesia, which is more than 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers) south of Japan. World War II began in Europe in 1939. Japan drew the United States into the war on December 7, 1941, when its planes bombed Pearl Harbor, a U.S. military base in Hawaii. The United States immediately declared war on Japan. By 1945, U.S. leaders desired to end the war with Japan. A U.S. airplane dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. Another bomb was released on the city of Nagasaki three days later. On August 14, 1945, the Japanese admit defeat. Following the war, Japan’s economy recovered quickly. By the 1970s, Japan was selling goods all over the world. Other countries looked to Japan for ways to progress their industries. Japan soon became a major world power.
Japan enjoys a rich tradition in the arts. One common Japanese art is called calligraphy---using a brush to paint alphabet characters. Japanese writers have produced great stories and poems. The haiku and the waka are Japanese poems. A haiku is a short poem with seventeen syllables in three lines. The first line has five syllables, the second line has seven syllables, and the third line has five syllables. The waka is a poem that has thirty-one syllables. In the theater, Japan’s No and Kabuki plays tell dramatic stories and use remarkable costumes and flamboyant makeup. Bunraku is a puppet play using wooden puppets that are about half the size of a person. It takes three people to work each puppet. Many Japanese enjoy bonsai---the art of growing miniature trees. The art of flower arranging is called ikebana. Japan’s schoolchildren are trained in origami, the art of folding paper into shapes of animals or other things. Birds and fish are popular subjects for origami. The traditional Japanese tea ceremony is called chanoyu. There are special instructions to follow---from how the cups and dishes are positioned, to how the server behaves. The chanoyu is a very special part of Japanese culture. The Japanese have great respect for blending with nature. This is replicated both in their arts, and in their everyday lives.
More than 125 million people live in Japan---about one-half the population of the United States. About 99 of every 100 people in Japan are ethnic Japanese. Koreans are the largest minority group. Japan’s largest cities are found on Honshu Island. Tokyo, Japan’s capital is on the southeast coast. Other large cities are Yokohama, Osaka, Nagoya, and Kyoto. Three-fourths of Japan’s people live in cities. The Japanese Language is written with characters, or symbols. Each character stands for a word or a syllable. This is unlike from English, in which several characters, or letters, spell out a word. Japan first adopted the Chinese writing system, and then added its own letterings. Buddhism and Shinto are Japan’s major religions. Shinto is Japan’s oldest religion. Buddhism, imported from China, gained many followers. Some Japanese observe both religions. Weddings may be Shinto rituals, while funerals might follow Buddhist practices. Temples and shrines of both faiths are found throughout Japan. City dwellers live in apartments. In the countryside, homes often have tile roofs and walled gardens. Before entering a Japanese house, visitors eliminate their shoes. The front part of the house is used for entertaining guests. Floors are enclosed with straw mats called tatami. People sit on large cushions instead of couches and chairs. The back rooms of the house are the family’s living area. Often there is one large room for living, eating, and sleeping. The Japanese sleep on dense cotton mattresses called futons. Dining tables are low, and people usually sit on the floor. In Japan, people eat with chopsticks. Rice is served at almost every meal, and seafood is often the main course. Sushi is uncooked seafood dipped in a tangy sauce. Other favorite foods are tempura (batter-fried fish and vegetables) and sukiyaki (strips of beef and vegetables). Most Japanese wear Western-style clothing---from jeans and T-shirts to high style designer outfits. Some women, however, prefer to wear kimonos. A kimono is a long robe with wide sleeves and a broad sash that is wrapped around the waist. Many Japanese schoolchildren dress in uniforms. Children study very hard. Many students take additional classes after school or study with private tutors. Many Japanese enjoy the widespread martial arts of judo, karate, and aikido. Sumo wrestling is an ancient sport that is still very popular. Besides their traditional sports, the Japanese love to play baseball and golf.
The difference between religion and philosophy in Japan is blurred, and most Japanese do not adhere to one particular sect. The native religion is a mixture of Shinto (literally, “the way of the gods”) and Bukkyo (Buddhism). There is no Sabbath (although Sunday is generally a day off from business, conforming to the Western standard), and there are no regularly scheduled worship meetings, Instead, individuals go to a shrine or temple at the beginning of the year and at other distinct times to pray and ask for blessings. Students preparing for entrance exams may pray for success by buying colorful wooden prayer boards called ema. Before starting the construction of a building, a Shinto priest may be called to offer prayers to appease the gods and spirits of the area. Funerals are usually accomplished according to Buddhist rituals, and attendees burn incense for the dead at special altars. Weddings are commonly held according to Shinto rites or---a popular choice in recent years—western Christian style, with the bride in a white gown and the groom donning a tuxedo, even if neither the bride nor the groom is a supporter of Christianity. Shinto, a purely Japanese religion, is a loosely prepared recognition of multiple kami (gods or spirits). Forces in nature---certain trees, rivers, mountains---are revered as places and things where such kami live. Deceased relatives are also revered, and many families pay them homage at small altars in the home. Although Japan has no nationwide religion today, Shinto was held as such until 1945. All Imperial Household rites, such as weddings, funerals, and ceremonies in conjunction with succession to the throne, are held according to Shinto custom. Shinto emphasizes good behavior and harmonious relationships with people, nature, and spirits. Bukkyo came from India by way of China and Korea and has undergone substantial alteration since its introduction to Japan in the year 538. There are now numerous sects whose differences primarily deal with particulars on how to obtain “nirvana,” or salvation. Taoism and Confucianism were also familiarized from China. Taoism is based on the principle that the individual and the universe are separate but unified through Tao (“the Way”) and that one must live in simplicity and harmony with nature. Its founder is the legendary figure lao-Tse (372 to 289B.C.). The educations of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551 to 479 B.C.) are based on social harmony and interpersonal relationships. Confucianism is considered the intellectual force behind the association and stabilization of Japan as a nation under the Tokugawa family and had a great impact on Japanese thought and behavior. Christianity was first introduced into Japan in 1549 by Jesuit missionaries from Portugal. They hastily found favor with local daimyo (feudal lords) in southwestern Japan, but although the church increased some popularity, it came to be viewed as a threat by the Tokugawa Shogun (generalissimo), who feared the growing influence of Christianity against his authority, as well as the potential danger of military interference from Portugal and Spain. Christianity was banned, and a period of severe oppression followed until the Meiji Restoration. It was then restored and has grown at a slow but fairly steady rate since World War II.
Japan’s social structure, although there are no official designations or segregation, maintains a strong traditional influence based on both Buddhist and Confucian principles. Confucianism stresses that social harmony can exist only if proper relationships are maintained; that is, a person must be obedient to superiors and benevolent toward inferiors. The concepts of “superior” and “inferior” were based on five relational pairs: ruler/subject, father/son, husband/wife, elder/younger, and friend/friend. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, there were four castes or classes of people. At the top were the samurai (warriors), followed in descending order by farmers (recognized as those who fed the nation), artisans (esteemed for their manual skills), and merchants (at the bottom of the social ladder because of their preoccupation with making money). By the end of the Tokugawa Period (1600 to 1868), the merchant class had gained much influence because they had become, as a whole, richer than the warrior class. Although they were nominally the lowest of the recognized classes, they held great power in the government of the country. Above the samurai in name and reverence was the aristocracy, including the court and the Imperial Household and administrators, although the actual governance was, for most of Japan’s history, left to the samurai. An outcaste group included primarily those who dealt with blood, death, or filth, such as gravediggers, butchers, leatherworkers, and those who cleaned up after the classed citizens. Their unclean status stemmed from Buddhist taboos against such things as handling blood or eating or touching meat (other than fish or poultry). These outcastes were for centuries segregated from society, but today they possess all the legal rights of Japanese citizens, although they are still privately discriminated against by some individuals. Despite a growing movement against such prejudice, some families still hire “marriage detectives” to check out a person’s ancestry before allowing a son or daughter to run the risk of being wed to someone of outcaste parentage.
Japan's main export goods are cars, electronic devices and computers. Most significant trade companions are China and the USA, followed by South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand and Germany. Japan has an excess in its export/import balance. The most vital import goods are raw materials such as oil, foodstuffs and wood. Main supplier is China, followed by the USA, Australia, Saudia Arabia, South Korea, Indonesia and the United Arab Emirates. Manufacturing, construction, distribution, real estate, services, and communication are Japan's key industries today. Farming makes up only about two percent of the GNP. The most significant agricultural product is rice. Resources of raw materials are very limited and the mining industry rather small. Unemployment in Japan is very low. Japan has many factories that produce cars, machinery, and ships. Other Japanese—made products are radios, television sets, cameras, and computers. Japanese merchandises are famous for their high value. Most Japanese work for huge companies, while others own restaurants, shops, and small businesses. Only a small amount of the land in Japan can be farmed. But Japanese farmers yield most of the food that the country needs. Terraces have been cut into many hillsides for better farming. Rice covers more than half of Japan’s farmland. Other important crops include wheat, tea, sugar beets, and cabbage. With ocean on all sides, Japan has a booming fishing industry. It sends out more fishing boats and catches more tuna than any other country. Japanese fishermen also catch salmon, Pollock, sardines, shrimp, and octopus.
The most significant and most notable part of the holiday season in Japan is New Year's Day, known as O-Shogatsu. It's a very eventful time between the 24th of December, when school gets out, and the first of January. Before the New Year, Japanese people sanitize their houses from top to bottom. Then they put up New Year's decorations, especially Kadomatsu which are made from bamboo, pine branches and strips of white folded paper. When the house is clean and decorated, then everybody gets busy preparing New Year's food. While in the United States we celebrate New Year’s Eve on the 31st of December. Japan starts celebrating between the 24th of December and January 1st. The favorite food of the United States for New Year’s is Soul Food. One of the most important New Year's foods is Mochi. In our neighborhood, we have a mochi-tsuki party every year and make our own mochi. We gather on a Sunday morning in an empty lot. In one corner of the lot, someone starts to cook rice on an open fire. When the rice is cooked, it is placed in a special wooden dish and is pounded with a big wooden hammer. All of the neighbors take turns pounding until the rice mixture becomes a big ball of dough. Then everyone gets involved rolling small mochi balls which are eaten with different kinds of sweet or salty sauces and toppings.
On New Year's Eve, Japanese people spend time at home with their family. They eat, play games, and watch special New Year's shows on television. Just before midnight, people can also watch temple ceremonies on TV. Where a huge gong is stuck 108 times to wipe away the 108 sins of the past year. Although Christmas cards exist in Japan, most people send traditional New Year's postcards called Nengajyo. Some people send hundreds of them. This custom is very nice because if you post your cards by a special date in December, the post office will deliver them all bright and early on the 1st of January. When you wake up on that day, your mailbox is full of happy wishes for you. After New Year's breakfast, people get dressed up in their kimonos to go to the shrine or to the temple to pray for good luck and good health in the New Year. This is the first temple visit of the year and is very important. After praying, people visit the temple market. All around the temple grounds, there are booths and little shops set up where you can buy traditional foods, cotton candy, balloons, toys and temple souvenirs. Daruma can also be purchased at the temple market. These are papier-mâché figures that come in many sizes and that have two big white eye spots. Daruma are used for making New Year's resolutions. With a magic marker, the buyer blackens in one of the eyes while making a resolution. If, during the year, they accomplish their wish, they can blacken the other eye to show they succeeded. At the end of the year, people return used darumas to the temple for a special burning and buy new ones. After visiting the temple, Japanese people return to their homes to eat, play traditional games and just relax. Children fly kites and play with wooden tops. Adults play poetry games and practice calligraphy. Probably the most important holiday tradition for Japanese children is O-toshidama. These are little envelopes containing money that children get from their parents and other relatives. Even though the Japanese holidays are very different from holidays in America and Europe, since children are expected to be good all year in order to get O-toshidama, in a way, it is just like Christmas.
The typical Japanese meal consists of a bowl of rice (gohan), a bowl of miso soup (miso shiru), pickled vegetables (tsukemono) and fish or meat. While rice is the staple food, several kinds of noodles (udon, soba and ramen) are cheap and very popular for light meals. As an island nation, the Japanese take great pride in their seafood. A wide variety of fish, squid, octopus, eel, and shellfish appear in all kinds of dishes from sushi to tempura. A kimono is a robe that has been worn in japan for centuries. While it is now brought out on special occasions, it is used to be worn regularly in everyday life. The fabric and colour of a kimono have meaning. It is therefore important what is chosen and by whom. The process of putting a kimono on is complicated and particular, and there are many layers that contribute to the final look. Men also wear kimonos. These, however, are generally much shorter and worn with traditional pants called hakama. Headbands are worn in Japan to indicate that the wearer has a challenge ahead of them that requires strength. Japan has become increasingly competitive rather than complementary in relations with the United States. Its impact on the U.S. economy stems from structural and policy sources. An important structural source is the vertical anatomy of Japan's foreign trade, which in turn is largely determined by its unbalanced physical endowment. On the policy plane, Japan has pursued a supply-side strategy that is specifically linked to the doctrine of dynamic comparative advantage. Its objective is to achieve international competitive power in U.S. markets, among others. Japan's supply-side approach is thus a precursor of that of the United States. The U.S. version, however, differs from the Japanese in having domestic rather than international priorities. The U.S. response to its persistent trade deficits with Japan has tended to be bilateral and protectionist. The various “voluntary” export restraints Japan has adopted under U.S. pressure have dark implications because of the cartel arrangements by which they are enforced. These arrangements revive and nourish Japan's cartel tradition, similar to that thriving in major European Economic Community (EEC) nations. In the event of serious economic difficulties, Japan and the EEC would be strongly inclined to internationalize and combine their cartels. This would have adverse repercussions on the domestic and external sectors of the U.S. economy.

References
Heinrichs, A. (2007). A True Book, Japan: Canada, Children’s Press 1997
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