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Just Something

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Submitted By LaerkeK
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Forklar henholdsvis produktion af æg og sædceller samt deres vej til et potentielt møde og kort hvilke 2 skæbner som normalt forekommer ved henholdsvis et møde eller ej.

• Forklar produktion af sædcelle:
Figur: http://www.biologitiltiden.dk/bogensfigurer/pdf/126.pdf
Sædceller bliver produceret i testiklerne hos mænd, og der dannes ca. 100-200 millioner sædceller pr. dag. Sædceller bliver produceret gennem kønsdelingsprocessen der kaldes meiose. Meiosen foregår i diploideceller, altså celler der indeholder et dobbelt sæt homologe kromoser. Meiosen er inddelt i 7 faser:
− Interfase: I denne fase fordobler kromosomerne sig, men er endnu ikke synlige.
− Profase I: Efter interfasen er kromosomerne fordoblet, derud over har de trukket sig sammen og er blevet synlige. De homologe, altså ens, kromosomer ligger sig to og to, og udveksler DNA-stykker ved det man kalder overkrydsning. Kromatiderne der før var genetisk ens bliver altså nu forskellige grundet overkrydsningen.
− Metafase I: I denne fase lægger kromosomerne sig i midten af cellen parvist.
− Anafase I: Tentrådene forbinder centriolerne med centromerne, som er det sted hvor kromatiderne hænger sammen. Tentrådene trækker kromatiderne mod centriolerne, i cellens ende og hvert kromosom par bliver derfor adskilt.
− Metafase II: Der nu to celler, i det cellen delte sig på midten og adskilte de tideligere kromosomer, derved er der kun det halve antal kromosomer som der var i den oprindelige celle. Hvert kromatid er genetisk forskellige pga. Den tideligere overkrydsning. Kromosomerne ligger sig hver af de to cellers midte.
− Anafase II: Hvert kromosom adskilles til to kromatider i kromosomets centromer.
− Telofase II: Nu har de to celler hver delt sig og der er dannet 4 sædceller. De er alle genetisk forskellige og indeholder hver 23 kromosomer.

• Forklar produktion af ægcelle:
Modsat ved produktionen af sædceller sker produktionen af ægceller ikke igennem hele livet, men derimod kun i de første 5 måneder af forsterlivet. Den meiotiske deling sker på samme måde som ved sædceller, men i ægceller fastfryses meiosen under profasen herefter kaldes cellerne primære oocytter. Der dannes ca. 7 mio. af disse primære oocytter, men da de er meget sårbare vil der kun være 1 mio. tilbage ved fødslen. Celledelingen fortsætter først når kvinden når puberteten, og her er der kun 300.000 oocytter tilbage. Ved hver menstruationscyklus forsætter en større antal af disse primære oocytter celledeling og fuldfører den første og anden meiotiske deling, men fastfryses igen ved metafase II. De resterende faser finder først sted hvis ægget befrugtes af en sædcelle.

• Sædcellers vej til ægget:
Testiklerne indeholder ca. 300 meter sædrør, der både er sædproducerende og sædførende. Testiklerne indeholder celler som forsyner sædcellerne med næringsstoffer og kontrollerer deres modning, de hjælper også med til at frigøre de modne sædceller i sædkanalerne og producerer kønshormonet testosteron.
Manden har to bitestikler, som hver især er placeret oven på hver testikel. En bitestikel er et langt sammenrullet rør, som måler ca. 6 meter, hvis man foldede den ud. Deres funktion er at opbevare og modne sædcellerne.
Ved sædafgang føres de modne celler gennem sædlederen der er en lang rørformet struktur, der forbinder bitestiklen med urinrøret. Ved mandens udløsning strømmer sædcellerne ud af bitestiklerne gennem sædlederen og ind i urinrøret.
Kun mellem 2-5% af den spermen består af sædceller. 25-30% af væsken dannes i Blærehalskirtlen også kaldet prostata. Denne del af væsken er sammensat af blandt andet citronsyre og et specifikt prostata antigen, hvor i blandt zink har den vigtigste funktion. Zinkens funktion indebærer nemlig at stabilisere kromatin, som altså indeholder DNA i sædcellerne. 65-75% af sædvæsken produceres i sædblæren, denne del består blandt andet af aminosyrer, enzymer og fruktose. Denne væske er den vigtigste energikilde for sædcellerne. Denne del indeholder ligeledes et stof kaldet prostaglandiner der sikre sæden mod det kvindelige immunforsvar. Mindre end 1% af sædvæsken dannes i de cowperske kirtler. Denne del er en slim der gør det lettere for sædcellerne at svømme.

Sædceller kan leve flere dage i de kirtler og gangsystemer, der er i livmoderhalskanalen. De hurtigste sædceller når ægget inden for 45 minutter.

Hver måned frigør den ene æggestok et æg. Det vandrer fra æggestokken via æggelederen ned til livmoderen. Hvis ægget ikke befrugtes, går det til grunde i løbet af et par dage.
Ikke alle sædceller finder vej op til æggelederne og ikke alle overlever transporten til ægget. Mange sædceller binder sig til den tynde skal der omgiver ægget, men kun 1 kommer igennem. Så snart en sædcelle trængt ind i ægget, udløses en kemisk reaktion i æggets omgivende hinde, som spærrer for de andre sædceller, så de ikke kan trænge ind i ægget.
Det netop befrugtede æg befinder sig nu yderst i æggelederen, og i de følgende dage transporteres ægget 10 centimeter ned gennem lederen, indtil det når livmoderhulheden. Dette tager to til tre dage. Mens ægget transporteres deler det sig dagligt til flere og flere celler og danner et embryon. Når det befrugtede og delte æg når livmoderhulheden, skal det efter en dag eller to ”klækkes”. Der går da hul i æggeskallen og selve fosteranlægget og anlægget til moderkagen udstødes, hvorefter det kommer i direkte kontakt med livmoderslimhinden, hvor det sætter sig fast. Det udviklede æg vil sætte sig fast i livmoderslimhinden ca. 7 dage efter befrugtningen.

Befrugtes det løsnede æg derimod ikke vil det blive udstødt og kvinden vil menstruere.

• Gør rede for kvindens menstruationscyklus
Hormon Udskilles fra Funktion
Østrogen Æggestokkene + follikel + det gule legeme Sænker produktion af FSH + gør slimhinder tykkere + dannelse af LH ved højt niveau af østrogen
Progesteron Det gule legeme Gør livmoderslimhinden tykkere
LH Hypofysen Giver besked om ægløsning
FSH (Follikel-stimulerende) Hypofysen Stimulerer til modning af folikel
− Ved puberteten vil hypofysen, en hormonproducerende kirtel inde i hjernen, begynde dannelsen af hormonerne FSH og LH.
− Mod slutningen af puberteten vil piger begynde at frigøre æg fra æggestokkene. Dette sker ca. en gang om måneden, da dette er varigheden for en menstruationscyklus.
− En menstruationscyklus varer fra 1. dag i en menstruation og frem til 1. dag i næste menstruation. Det varierer, hvor lang en menstruationscyklus er. Men for det meste er den på mellem 25 og 30 dage.

− Det første der sker er at hypofysen frigivet hormonet FSH, som stimulerer æggestokkene til at modne mellem 8-10 follikler. En follikel er en væskefyldt blærer hvor et æg befinder sig.
− I takt med at æggestokkene producere en højere og højere mængde østrogen, modnes folikerne. 1 af disse follikler vil være større og dominerende. Det er denne som senere i cyklussen vil briste og sende et æg af sted.
− Det østrogen niveau hindrer hypofysen i at producere mere FSH, og der modnes derfor ikke flere æg i denne cyklus.
− Østrogen er også med til at ændre livmoderslimhinden, så den bliver tykkere og klar til at modtage et æg senere hen.
− Når østrogen når et vist niveau udløses ægløsningshormonet LH fra hypofysen, østrogenen udøver altså positiv feetback.
− Ca. 36-40 timer efter frigivelsen af LH, vil ægget gennemgå den sidste modningsproces.
− Folliklen brister og ægget sendes af sted med folikel væske.
− Folliklen der indeholdte ægget omdannes til det gule legeme.
− Det gule legeme påbegynder produktionen af hormonet progesteron, som bygger videre på livmoderslimhinden som snart skal modtage ægget. Progesteron udøver negativ feetback der får frigivelsen af LH til at stoppe.
− Ægget vil trækkes af fimrehår ind i æggelederens kanal, og det er her at ægget skal mødes af en sædcelle for at blive befrugtet.
− Det befrugtede æg skal fra æggelederen ned til livmoderen, hvor det skal sætte sig fast i slimhinden.
− Hvis ægget ikke befrugtes tørrer det gule legeme ind, og progesteron produktionen stoppes dermed, og mængden af Østrogen falder.
− Det medfører at livmoder slimhinden løsner sig og en ny menstruation påbegyndes.

• Redegørelse for DNA’s opbygning samt hvor det findes
− DNA i en prokayot celle findes i cellekernen, som er beskyttet af en kernemembran. I en eukayot celle derimod er der ingen cellekerne og DNA’et befinder sig i cellens cytoplasma.
− DNA består primært af de fire baser kaldet adenin, thymin, guanin og cytosin. På hver af disse baser sidder der et sukkerstof og forfat (se billedet). En base med et sukkerstof og fosfat kaldes en nukleotid. Nukleotiderne er forbundet i det man kalder basepar. Hvilke baser der er forbundet til hvilke baser er ikke tilfældigt, da adenin og thymin altid forbindes og guanin og cytosin på samme vis altid forbindes, men rækkefølgen af baseparrene er forskellige. En række af disse basepar, i en bestemt rækkefølge, er det som udgøre et gen, og på én enkelt DNA-streng findes der mange, mange gener.

• Protein syntese:
− Protein er opbygget af over 20 forskellige aminosyrer, og det er rækkefølgen af disse aminosyrer der afgøre virkemåden for hvert protein. Det som bestemmer rækkefølgen er DNA. For at få disse DNA-oplysninger bragt fra cellekernen til ribosomerne, hvor proteinerne bliver skabt, bruges RNA. RNA ligner på de fleste punkter DNA, forskellen ligger blot i at der i RNA ikke findes basen thymin, men derimod har uracil overtager thymins plads som adenins partner i baseparene.
− Det der sker er at DNA strengen åbner sig, så kommer mRNA og sætter sig på skabelon strengen. Derved vil mRNA’en have de modsatte baser end skabelon strengen. mRNA’en transporteres nu til ribosomerne, som er hvor proteinerne dannes og mRNA’en oversættes. Det der sker er at mRNA’en har nogle kodon, som altså består af de forskellige baser, de passer sammen med en tilsvarende anti-kodon, og disse anti-kodon kommer i form af nogle aminosyrer på tRNA som står for transport-RNA. Ribosomet aflæser altså mRNA’et og aflæser anti-kodon på tRNA’et med aminosyrerne og sætter herefter aminosyrerne sammen i rækkefølgen som mRNA’et har aflæst fra DNA’et. Disse rækker af aminosyrer klades for polypepsider og når disse kæder bliver lange nok skabes proteinet!

DNA replikation:
− Dna strengen møder et enzym – kaldes helikase.
− Helikasen splater dna-molekylets to strenge.
− Venstre side/streng møder enzymet DNA-polymerase 3.
− Dette enzym sætter nye nukleotider på DNA strengen, under denne proces fraspaltes to fosfater fra hver nukleotid.
− Efter DNA-polymerase 3 har sat nukleotiderne på vil vi have en ny DNA-streng, som kaldes den ledende streng
− Strengen på højreside er antiparalel, den vender altså den modsatte vej, og fordi DNA-polymeresa altid vil arbejde samme vej sker der noget lidt andet på højre side end vi før så på venstre side.
− Det den gør er at lave et ”Loop” og hive et stykke af strengen ind, og lave det, hvorefter den hiver et nyt stykke ind.
− På grund af denne anderledes process vil der komme huller i den nye DNA-streng.
− Hullerne udfyldes af DNA-polymerasse 1.
− Og lukkes af ligase.
− Vi har nu fået en ny DNA.streng som kaldes følgestrengen.

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...occasions. The Just war theory deals with the justification of how and why wars are fought. The justification can be theoretical. The theoretical aspect is concerned with justifying war ethically. The role of ethics is used to examine whether war is justified and if so can the aspects be changed. The just war tradition also considers the thoughts of various philosophers through the ages and examine their philosophical visions of war’s ethical limits and whether their thoughts have contributed to the justification of war. The just war theory was firstly developed by Saint Augustine of Hippo. Looking back at the Bible he realised that although older generations sided with the more peaceful aspects of the Bible (New Testament) the aspects which included violence (Old Testament) could not be ignored. In Mathew 5 it Jesus said “blessed are the peacemakers” however he did not oppose those who crucified him. This links to how war can be justified because Jesus Gods only son did not punish those who purposely killed him without reason. So to punish those with to an extent have a valid reason could be seen as hypocritical. Augustine believed that justified wars were commanded by God in the bible and split his theory into two parts they are; jus ad bellum-just reasons for going to war, and jus in bello-just practice in war. This was then further developed by Aquinas. Jus ad bellum contains seven key points. If these points are met then war can be justified. The points are; just authority-war...

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...edu/ethics/publications/ethicalperspectives/cook.html> The author of this essay, Dr. Martin L. Cook, is an Elihu Root Professor of Military Science and a Professor of Ethics under the Department of Command, Leadership and Management at the U.S. Army War College. Under the guidance of the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff, Operations, U.S. Army, Cook was asked to prepare this paper. Prior to his current position, Cook engaged his professional expertise at the Santa Clara University and taught under in the Department of Religious Studies. Cook’s paper first states that as a result of the recent September 11th, 2001 attacks pertaining to the Pentagon (Washington D.C) and the World Trade Center (New York City), the concept of just warfare - the moral and legal traditions of just war and its appropriate, yet effective response has vastly differed and have been challenged. Not only are they subjective to interstate war, but are also adapted to the war against...

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