...Linguistics Introduction the scientific study of language. The word was first used in the middle of the 19th century to emphasize the difference between a newer approach to the study of language that was then developing and the more traditional approach of philology. The differences were and are largely matters of attitude, emphasis, and purpose. The philologist is concerned primarily with the historical development of languages as it is manifest in written texts and in the context of the associated literature and culture. The linguist, though he may be interested in written texts and in the development of languages through time, tends to give priority to spoken languages and to the problems of analyzing them as they operate at a given point in time. The field of linguistics may be divided in terms of three dichotomies: synchronic versus diachronic, theoretical versus applied, microlinguistics versus macrolinguistics. A synchronic description of a language describes the language as it is at a given time; a diachronic description is concerned with the historical development of the language and the structural changes that have taken place in it. The goal of theoretical linguistics is the construction of a general theory of the structure of language or of a general theoretical framework for the description of languages; the aim of applied linguistics is the application of the findings and techniques of the scientific study of language to practical tasks, especially to the elaboration...
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...linguistics lɪŋgwɪstɪks/ noun 1. 1. the scientific study of language and its structure, including the study of grammar, syntax, and phonetics. Specific branches of linguistics include sociolinguistics, dialectology, psycholinguistics, computational linguistics, comparative linguistics, and structural linguistics. Discourse[edit] A discourse is a way of speaking that emerges within a certain social setting and is based on a certain subject matter. A particular discourse becomes a language variety when it is used in this way for a particular purpose, and is referred to as a register.[25] There may be certain lexical additions (new words) that are brought into play because of the expertise of the community of people within a certain domain of specialisation. Registers and discourses therefore differentiate themselves through the use of vocabulary, and at times through the use of style too. People in the medical fraternity, for example, may use some medical terminology in their communication that is specialised to the field of medicine. This is often referred to as being part of the "medical discourse", and so on. Dialect[edit] A dialect is a variety of language that is characteristic of a particular group among the language speakers.[26] The group of people who are the speakers of a dialect are usually bound to each other by social identity. This is what differentiates a dialect from a register or adiscourse, where in the latter case, cultural identity does not always...
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...网络流行新词“X姐”和“X哥”语义演变的隐喻认知研究 摘要:近几年来，“X姐”、“X哥”作为新兴的网络新词得到广泛推广。“姐”、“哥”的语义也发生了变化：由最初表示一种亲属关系的身份，到如今人们对社会当中的某些比较特殊的或是比较突出的个人冠以的一种或调侃或戏谑的称呼。隐喻作为语言使用过程中的一种重要的认知模式，与语义演变密切相关。本文从隐喻认知的角度，就“姐”、“哥”在“X姐”、“X哥”中产生的新义，加以阐释。 关键词：网络新词，语义演变，隐喻认知 Abstract: In recent years, “X Jie” and “X Ge”, as new forms of internet expressions, have been widely used. “Jie” and “Ge” have developed from the original meanings, elder sister and elder brother into many new meanings, such as a person of special personality in a given filed. Metaphor, as an important cognitive model, has a close relationship with the language evolution. From the view of cognitive metaphor, the new meanings of “Jie” and “Ge” can be scientifically explained. Key Words：New Forms of Internet Expressions，Language Evolution，Cognitive Metaphor 一、引言 随着信息时代的高速发展，网络时代的到来促使了新的交流方式的产生，即以网络为媒介而实现的人际交流的方式。在这个交流的过程中出现了一种新的语言——网络语言。网络语言基于网络的开放性和自由性形成了其独具特色的新语体，许多新词扑面而来，并经过网络传播而得以推广流行。网络流行词“X姐”、“X哥”在近几年频频出现，并以强大的构词能力迅速风靡网络、电视、报刊等新闻媒体。例如新词“凤姐”、“犀利哥”已经成为人们热议的话题。“X姐”、“X哥”作为网络新词，具有其能产性、定位性、和类化性的特点。“姐”、“哥”由最初表示一种亲属关系的身份，到如今人们对社会当中的某些比较特殊的或是比较突出的个人冠以的一种或调侃或戏谑的称呼。在这种词义的变化中，隐喻思维的影响不容置疑。据统计，语言中70%的词义是隐喻或源于隐喻。随着社会的发展，人们不断认知和创造这新事物，事物范畴也不断扩大。当人的思维发展到一定阶段，最初的概念范畴已不能满足对具体事物的认识和表达。这时，人们并不是无止境的创造新词语，而是将新认识的抽象概念与已知的事物相联系，找到它们的相似性，从而用对已知的事物的认识来处理，即隐喻认知过程。可见，隐喻对认知和词语意义的发展有重要意义。本文从认知语言学的视角出发，对“姐”、“哥”的语义转化进行隐喻认知方面的考察，以揭示“姐”、“哥”语义转化的隐喻认知过程，为新词语流行推广的原因提供借鉴。 二、隐喻 对隐喻的研究可追溯到两千年前，亚里士多德的传统隐喻论把隐喻看作是一种修辞格，是一种语言常规的违反和偏离。在新近的二十几年崛起的认知语言学研究中，隐喻不再被看作是...
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...universals are a pattern that occurs systematically across natural languages potentially true for all of them. For instance, all languages have verbs and nouns and they have phonological aspects such as consonants and vowels The research in this area of linguistics is nearly connected to the study of linguistic typology and also intends to portray generalizations across languages such as cognition and perception of the mind. Noam Chomsky His arguments on language universals were mainly on grammar. He proposed that if human beings are brought up under normal conditions, then they will always develop language with a certain property e.g. distinguishing function words from lexical words. As a result this property, it is considered to be a property of universal grammar in the most general sense. He argued that there are theoretical senses of the term universal grammars well. The most general would be that universal grammar is whatever properties of a normally developing human brain cause it to learn languages that conform to the universal grammar. Using the notion above, universal grammar would be like innate property of the human brain that causes it to posit a difference between nouns and verbs whenever presented with linguistic data. Evidently put by Chomsky, development of language in the individual must involve three factors. i.e. 1) genetic endowment, which sets limits on the attainable languages, thereby making language...
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...A. LANGUAGE & LINGUISTIC 1. What is the meaning of language and linguistic? Language and linguistic are two different words that use differently all over the world. Language is the capacity of someone to communicate with other because it is the mode of expression of thoughts by means of articulation of sounds, exchanging ideas, feelings, intentions, attitudes, expectations, perceptions or commands, as by speech gestures, writings and behaviors. Therefore, language is a meaningful exchange of information between two or more individual. On the other hand, linguistic is a comparative study of language due to the fact that wherein you make a historical study of languages here. In this field you concentrate about the structure, rules, meanings and forms of languages. 2. How important is language and linguistic? In my own opinion, the significance of language in our lives is incomparable. It is not just restrained to being a means of communicating one’s thought and ideas to the rest, but has also become a tool for forging friendships, cultural ties, as well as economic relationships. In addition, the importance of language is essential to every aspect and interaction in our everyday lives. We use language to inform, to communicate the people around us of what we feel, what we desire and question or understand. We communicate effectively with our...
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...Computational Linguistics Computational linguistics (CL) is a discipline between linguistics and computer science which is concerned with the computational aspects of the human language faculty. It belongs to the cognitive sciences and overlaps with the field of artificial intelligence (AI), a branch of computer science aiming at computational models of human cognition. Computational linguistics has applied and theoretical components. Theoretical CL takes up issues in theoretical linguistics and cognitive science. It deals with formal theories about the linguistic knowledge that a human needs for generating and understanding language. Today these theories have reached a degree of complexity that can only be managed by employing computers. Computational linguists develop formal models simulating aspects of the human language faculty and implement them as computer programmes. These programmes constitute the basis for the evaluation and further development of the theories. In addition to linguistic theories, findings from cognitive psychology play a major role in simulating linguistic competence. Within psychology, it is mainly the area of psycholinguistics that examines the cognitive processes constituting human language use. The relevance of computational modelling for psycholinguistic research is reflected in the emergence of a new subdiscipline: computational psycholinguistics. Applied CL focusses on the practical outcome of modelling human language use. The methods...
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...Introduction When you were still a very young child, you began acquiring at least one language — what linguists call your L1 (first language) — probably without thinking much about it, and with very little conscious effort or awareness. Since that time, you may have acquired an additional language — your L2 (second language) — possibly also in the natural course of having the language used around you, but more likely with the same conscious effort needed to acquire other domains of knowledge in the process of becoming an “educated” individual. This presentation is about the phenomenon of adding languages. In it I will define a few of the key terms that we will use and 5 stages we go through when learning a language. What is language acquisition? Do you know what word you first spoke? Have you ever considered how many words you have learned over your lifetime? Many psychologists estimate we learn around 3,500 words a year between our first birthday and before we are 30. We grow from infants without language to chatterboxes with a gift for gab, and researchers are fascinated by how this happens. Psychologists have different theories on language acquisition, or the process by which we learn to speak, write, or even use sign language in meaningful ways to communicate. Theories of Language Acquisition Behaviorists, like B.F. Skinner (who lived from 1904-1990), argued that language acquisition and development are learned behaviors. Behaviorists believe we learn by associating...
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...Language Teaching Methodology Theodore S. Rodgers, Professor Emeritus, University of Hawaii Background Language teaching came into its own as a profession in the last century. Central to this phenomenon was the emergence of the concept of "methods" of language teaching. The method concept in language teaching—the notion of a systematic set of teaching practices based on a particular theory of language and language learning—is a powerful one, and the quest for better methods was a preoccupation of teachers and applied linguists throughout the 20th century. Howatt's (1984) overview documents the history of changes of practice in language teaching throughout history, bringing the chronology up through the Direct Method in the 20th century. One of the most lasting legacies of the Direct Method has been the notion of "method" itself. Language Teaching Methodology Defined Methodology in language teaching has been characterized in a variety of ways. A more or less classical formulation suggests that methodology is that which links theory and practice. Theory statements would include theories of what language is and how language is learned or, more specifically, theories of second language acquisition (SLA). Such theories are linked to various design features of language instruction. These design features might include stated objectives, syllabus specifications, types of activities, roles of teachers, learners, materials, and so forth. Design features in turn are linked...
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...Cultural/Linguistic Autobiography Hollie T. Dwyer TSL 537 Grand Canyon University March 19, 2013 As an educator, I am curious to know how my cultural and linguistic background will affect my ability to meet and exceed the needs of second language learners. My family and I are African American with family influences from Ireland and the Caribbean Islands of Barbados and Grenada. Growing up in a military family from the South, English was the primary language that was used in my home by my parents. I was exposed to other languages in small amounts due to the fact that my family lived overseas the majority of my childhood. In the past, I was exposed to German and Korean through my parents’ attempts through second acquisition. I received a K-12 education on three different continents. I attended elementary and middle school in the United States, Germany, and South Korea. I received my secondary education in Florida. All of the schools were located in suburban areas. In the United States, I attended traditional public schools and in Germany I went to DoDDS (Department of Defense Schools) where students were children of service members and government employees. In South Korea, I attended a private school. I received my undergraduate degree from Florida A&M University in History with a minor in English. Many of the classes I completed for my minor focused on English as it related to ESOL (English as a Second Language) education. These classes...
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...The Linguistics Assessment of a Young Child’s Language Melissa Ozuna California State University, Los Angeles Questions: 1, 5, 7, 8, 12 The Linguistic Assessment of a Young Child’s Language Introduction “The child begins to perceive the world not only through his eyes but also through his speech.” Like Lev Vygotsky, Holmes speaks about one of the everyday behavior we use and that’s language. Communication is done by engaging our brains and bodies to make sounds and transfer one person’s thoughts to another. No matter how many languages there are, language can still be broken down into the same building blocks of communication. Specifically, linguistics is analyzed with one of the smallest building blocks like phonology, to lexicon, to syntax, to morphology, and communicative competence. Just how small these building blocks of linguistics come together at its own pace, is exactly how small it is to learn language. Language learning can be done at its own pace, but with the help of assessments there are common turning points, procedures, and phases one can follow to truly understand an individual’s language development over time. Method Participants Rita is a 3 year and two month old female. She is the second child of the family living under the roof with both parents. Father works at a Police station and mother’s occupation is at a office profession. From her beginning till her present days she has spoken 100% English. Procedure The interview was conducted in the living room/...
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...Corpus linguistics and language pedagogy: The state of the art – and beyond Joybrato Mukherjee Justus Liebig University, Giessen Abstract The present paper provides a selected overview of the state of the art in corpusinformed language pedagogy. Starting off from a general assessment of the impact that the corpus revolution has already had on English language teaching (ELT), the focus of the main part of this paper is on some typical examples of corpus use in three language-pedagogically relevant areas: (1) using corpora for ELT (e.g. producing learner dictionaries); (2) using corpora in the ELT classroom (e.g. in data-driven learning); (3) using learner corpora. With regard to learner corpus research, for example, the paper also sketches out some prospects for future research, e.g. the compilation of local learner corpora. 1 Introduction: the corpus revolution and English language teaching There is general agreement among empirically-oriented linguists that the advent of large, computerised corpora has revolutionised the linguistic description and analysis of the English language. In modern corpus linguistics, not just any group of texts qualifies as a corpus, but it must be "a collection of texts assumed to be representative of a given language, dialect, or other subset of a language" (Francis 1982: 7). Representativeness is a key issue in corpus design because it captures the attempt to compile a database that provides a statistically viable sample of language...
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...NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming) NLP is defined as a practical model of the processes we experience to experience reality. NEURO refers to how our mind perceive the information through our five senses ( Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic, Olfactory, Gustatory) LINGUISTIC refers to how we understand and interpret information through verbal and nonverbal communication PROGRAMMING refers to how we re-present the perceived message in our mind and how it manifests into behaviour. This model can then be analyzed to eliminate any problems faced by the individual. We can also model the positive or successful aspects of our behavior or those of another person, and reproduce that model and apply on our negative aspects in order to change or improve them. HISTORY: NLP originated when Richard Bandler, a student at University of California, Santa Cruz, was listening to and selecting portions of taped therapy sessions of the late Gestalt therapist Fritz Perls as a project for Robert Spitzer.[18][19] Bandler believed he recognized particular word and sentence structures which facilitated the acceptance of Perls' therapeutic suggestions. Bandler took this idea to one of his university lecturers, John Grinder, a linguist. Together they studied Perls' via tape and observed a second therapist Virginia Satir to produce what they termed the meta model, a model for gathering information and challenging a client's language and underlying thinking.[20] The meta model was presented in 1975 in two volumes...
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...PADMASHREE DR. D. Y. PATIL ARTS , COMMERCE AND SCIENCE COLLEGE, PIMPRI, PUNE 18 M.A. PART 2 SEM 3 PAPER 2 ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE TEACHING PROJECT TOPIC: “TEACHING ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN SOCIO-LINGUISTIC CONTEXT” SUBMITTED BY: GAURAV .N. SHIMPI CHECKED BY: PROF. DIPTI PETHE YEAR : 2012 -2013 INDEX Introduction Aims and Objectives Meaning and Nature of Language English Language and Literature in India Role of Language in Teaching Literature Sociolinguistic Contest in Learning and Teaching English Language Conclusion Bibliography INTRODUCTION Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society. Sociolinguistics differs from sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the society on the language, while the latter's focus is on the language's effect on the society. Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with pragmatics. It is historically closely related to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the two fields has even been questioned recently. It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e.g., ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc., and how creation and...
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...Evaluate Chomsky's contribution to linguistics in terms of 'competence and performance'. Noam Chomsky is the famous American linguist. He is the most dominant linguist of present time. He has put aside the traditional concepts of language viewed as a set of rules. He believes that the ideal speaker-hearer knows the language of that community perfectly. That is why, the knowledge of the ideal speaker-hearer is more important to him than the descriptive rules of a language. Chomsky, in his revolutionary book Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), has made a fundamental distinction between the knowledge of a language and its actual use. In order to explain his views about language, he has used two terms— (1) competence and (ii) performance. Competence (Grammatical sense): Linguistic competence, according to Chomsky, is the ideal speaker-hearer knowledge about a language. This knowledge is possessed by an ideal speaker-hearer. This knowledge helps to judge about a language. For example, an ideal speaker-hearer can judge which sentences are correct and which are not. In sum, linguistic competence is grammatical competence of an ideal speaker-hearer. Chomsky describes 'competence' as an idealized capacity that is located as a psychological or mental property (which naturally develops within us). This capacity or ability allows the speaker to understand the underlying rules of a language. Hence, competence allows the user to make general statements about the language. For...
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...The article entitled, “Linguistic Paths to Urban Self in Postcolonial Solomon Islands” by Christine Jourdan explores the many languages that are spoken in the chain of islands that can culturally bind or culturally separate the various groups that hold significance to the past, present, and future of the Solomon Islands. Jourdan specifically focuses on the contrasting ways “villagers” and urban residents to decide to communicate even though they share the same ancestral history. The presentation of the article wants to use the national languages, Pijin and English, along with the various ethnic languages, also known as vernacular languages, to establish national unity and renew a sense of pride and appreciation among the urban citizens who tend to stray away from their history. The focus on language also led to the discussion of classes within society that changed its infrastructure and diversity. Gender, socioeconomic status, and location play a role on the different types of customs that people practice. During the pre-colonial era, Christianization through Missionaries led to the institution of the English Language in Pacific Islander society. “ Ethnics Languages were viewed as dialects by colonists were frowned upon. So, they tended to stray away from the ethnic language and stick to their own. In the present, Pijin, is viewed to be the language of choice in cities, such as Honiara. As the Solomon Islands advanced to modern times, urban residents mainly spoke, Pijin,. However...
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