...Logical Concepts an overview What is logic? • Logic is the science of reasoning, • which is to say: the academic discipline that investigates reasoning. What is reasoning? • reasoning is inferring (deducing) • to infer is to draw conclusions (output) from a premise or set of premises (input). An Example of Reasoning You see smoke And you infer That there is fire (input) (deduce) (output) Another example of Reasoning You count 19 people in a group; which originally had 20 people in it; and you infer that someone is missing (input) (input) (deduce) (output) The Basic Idea Logic evaluates reasoning in terms of arguments. What is an argument? • The word “argument” can mean many different things depending on the context. • But for the purposes of logic, the term “argument” means something very specific: What is an argument? • an argument is a collection of statements, one of which is designated as the conclusion, and the remainder of which are designated as the premises. • Important note: premises are always intended to provide support or evidence for the conclusion, but they don't always succeed. (It’s still an argument either way.) What is a statement? • A statement is a declarative sentence, • i.e., a sentence that is capable of being true or false. • For example: The door is closed. • Other kinds of sentence are not capable of being true or false: • Interrogative sentences are inquiries for information: Is the door...
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...Part one of the video opens up by telling viewers that Aristotle is credited with formalizing logic as a discipline. Viewers are directed to the aspect of what arguments are in the area of logic. Arguments are not heated exchanges or personal assaults, but however they are a group of statements. Statements are sentences capable of being true or false. An example of a statement is saying, “All cats are vicious animals.” The next topic that is brought up in part one of the video is the subject of inference. Inference is the reasoning process of an argument. Inference can be explicit (using premise and/or conclusion indicator words) and implicit (the reader has to catch the inference). Finally the video concludes with the point that there are four non-inferences commonly mistaken for arguments these are: advice, assertion, reports, and explanations. Part two of the formal logic video is the topic of inference. As stated in the early video inference is the reasoning process of an argument. Viewers are now introduced with the topic of deductive and inductive arguments. A deductive argument means that there is no possibility of the conclusion being false when the premises are true. Inductive arguments mean that the premises merely make the conclusion likely (conclusion “goes beyond” the premises). Lastly inductive forms are arguments based on signs, prediction, and generalization just to name a few. Part three of the video talks about validity, strength, soundness, and cogency...
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...Class: BBA 1 (Section B) Course title: Introduction to logic Assignment no 1 Chapter no 3 Categorical proposition Submitted to: Sir Imran Exercise I. State the converses of the following proposition and indicate which of them are equivalent to the given proposition. 1. No people who are considerate of others are reckless drivers who pay no attention to traffic regulations. Answer: No reckless drivers who pay no attention to traffic regulation are people who are considerate of others. (Equivalent) 2. All those who pass the NDA exam are commissioned officers in Indian army. Answer: *All commissioned officer in Indian army are those who pass NDA exam. (Not equivalent) *Some commissioned officer in Indian army are those who pass NDA exam. (Limit) (Equivalent) 3. Some Korean cars are overpriced and inferior quality automobiles. Answer: Some overpriced and inferior quality automobiles are Korean cars. (Equivalent) 4. No reptiles are warm-blooded animals. Answer: No warm-blooded animals are reptiles. (Equivalent) 5. Some film producers are elderly persons who are incapable of producing works of quality anymore. Answer: Some elderly persons who are incapable of producing works of quality anymore are...
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...Logic Application Jessica Mitrov Mat/104 October 28,2013 Rami Hanbali Logic Application We are given an illogically logical problem. When reading the clues that we are given it makes no sense what so ever. I read the problem multiple times and no matter what way I read it there never seemed to have any logic to it. So I will show you the important facts that were given to us, the strategy I used, I will also give you a blow by blow on how to solve the problem, and finally tell you the answer to how Andy figured out what his cards were. By the end of this paper you will see how this illogical problem actually is a very logical problem. The most important information that is given to you in an indirect way is that you have to find the missing information to make the illogical problem become logical. You are told that you plus three other people have cards with numbers anywhere between one and nine. You are given the numbers to Andy, Belle, and Carol. They also tell you that Andy sees two people that have cards that have the same sum, and that Belle sees all of the odd numbers between one and nine. Now that we know the information that we found out that the problem makes no sense our strategy is to use logic and deductive reasoning. In order to do that you have to find out what your three cards are. Once you know that then the answers to the two questions will make since, and from there you will be able to figure out how Andy was able to guess what his cards are. So figure...
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...Argument and Logic Axia Campus of University of Phoenix Parmenide’s most famous disciple, Zeno has devised a series of ingenious arguments to support Parmenide’s theory. The theory is reality is one. Zeno took a basic approach to demonstrate motion is impossible. His example was a rabbit moving from one hole to another, and must first reach the quarter point before reaching the next hole. The point needing to be reached is one-eighth the distance. Whether it is a rabbit or another creature it must reach a point of infinite number of points to get anywhere they wish to go. By the requirement of needing to move an infinite number of times anywhere would rule out motion. Second theory states for a rabbit to move from one hole to another, at each moment of its travel will occupy space meaning it is at rest. Since the rabbit occupies space each moment it is at rest each moment so it cannot move. Zeno’s argument is that motion is not possible. Basically stating when a rabbit moves from one place to another the rabbit moves infinite times ruling out motion. When anything is attempting to reach a certain spot or location whether it is an animal or human we at any point can all stop. Zeno is saying motion does not exist at all because we all stop at some point. I believe him stating motion does not exist is Ludacris, because as we are moving we are in motion and then we stop and then we are back in motion once we began to move again. I believe for the most part his logics and arguments...
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...Nature of Logic to Critical Thinking Introduction Alliance in the workplace is inevitable as a successful working team member becomes familiar with each other. The leadership is defined and each member knows his or her function or responsibility. When problems arise that can cause deadlines to slip, the logical assumption by managers is to provide fresh insight to quickly get back on schedule. The next logical step is the introduction of a new member to that team that usually disrupts the harmony that previous success has generated and creates problems regardless of the qualification of the new member. Discussion Whenever a task is assigned with little or no margin for error and a deadline is missed, someone usually must be held accountable. This situation came about while integrating a new wireless communication system to an existing, but obsolete, hard-wired system. The time allocated to complete the integration was dependent on the assumption that it would be a seamless integration. A problem was immediately realized when the analysis of the wired and wireless system revealed that the wireless system is balanced, differential microphone and differential headsets do not share a common return, and the drive level in one direction was too low and too high in the other. Further complicating the problem was that the wired system was designed to operate with a powered microphone, needs dc voltage, and the wireless was not capable of generating that dc voltage level. ...
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...INTRODUCTION The Study of Logic Definition Derived from the Greek word ”logos” which means - study, reason or discourse LOGIC is the science and art of correct thinking - it is a SCIENCE because it is a systematized body of logical truths and principles governing correct thinking - as an ART, logic is a “techne” and it teaches how to make a good argument - often called the arts of arts because it develops and perfects the intellect which all artists need in their work Logic and correct thinking It is “correct” when it conforms to a pattern or to rules Example: A ruler is 12-inch long Pres. GMA is a ruler Therefore, Pres. GMA is 12-inch long -THINKING is a mental process – involves analysis, definition, classification, comparison and contrasts, etc. - It guides or directs man to form correct ideas Branches of logic FORMAL LOGIC -concerned with the aspect of form which has something to do with the correctness or sequence or the following of rules Ex. All men are mortal but Pedro is a man therefore Pedro is mortal Branches of logic MATERIAL LOGIC -concerned with the aspect of subject matter or content or truth of the argument Example: A ruler is 12-inch long Pres. GMA is a ruler Therefore, Pres. GMA is 12-inch long KINDS Deductive Logic: from more to less Inductive Logic: implies a sense of probability Concepts and terms The three essential operations of the intellect concept The representation...
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...INTRODUCTION LAW FOUNDATION LAW AND … 1. LOGIC 2. SCIENCE 3. THEORY 4. SOCIAL PROBLEMS LAW FOUNDATION Critical = informed and logical Responsible = social equity Creative = independent and considered Interrelations -- with other disciplines and institutions Historical, philosophical, economic, political and social context == acquaintance with historical development of theory Contemporary social issues: · Terrorism · Refugees · Crime and punishment Historical context John Locke? Karl Marx? LOGIC What is wrong with this statement? In the war on terror, you are either with us or against us Which of the following is sound? All men have hair I have hair Therefore I am a man All men have hair I am a man Therefore I have hair Logic definitions Logic = science that evaluates arguments Argument = group of statements, with premises claimed to support conclusions [also inference] Statement = sentence that is either true or false [also proposition] Premise = statement setting forth reasons or evidence Conclusion = statement that the evidence is claimed to support or imply Arguments and non-arguments Arguments must have a factual claim and an inferential claim. The following are not arguments: · warnings or advice · belief or opinion · loosely associated statements · factual reports · explanations · illustrations · conditional statements Deduction and induction ...
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...The Power of Logic The Power of Logic FOU RTH E DITION Frances Howard-Snyder Daniel Howard-Snyder Ryan Wasserman WESTERN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2009, 2005, 2002, 1999, by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGrawHill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC/DOC 0 9 8 ISBN: 978-0-07-340737-1 MHID: 0-07-340737-2 Editor in Chief: Michael Ryan Editorial Director: Beth Mejia Sponsoring Editor: Mark Georgiev Marketing Manager: Pamela Cooper Editorial Coordinator: Briana Porco Production Editors: Melissa Williams/Melanie Field, Strawberry Field Publishing Cover Designer: Ashley Bedell Cover Photo: © Dan Trist/Corbis Media Project Manager: Thomas Brierly Production Supervisor: Louis Swaim Composition: This text was set in 10.5/12.5 Goudy by Aptara, Inc. Printing: Printed on 45# New Era Matte by R.R. Donnelley & Sons, Inc. Credits: The credits section for this book is on page 647, following the Answer Key in the back of the book, and is considered an extension of the copyright page. ...
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...Scott Jorgensen American Government Dr. Gollob 8/31/14 Americans have all different political views, but when I think about how most Americans define the concept of logical when judging their government, I think of chaos. I think many Americans base their logic off how the government should be run that is best fit for them. Previous decisions made by government also make a large impact in how Americans define the concept of logical. If the government makes decisions that are highly questionable, there are two likely outcomes. One, Americans will support the decisions that these high officials make. Or two, as something goes not as planned or not promised (which seems to happen quite often) people will instantly judge our governments’ concept of logic and questions start to arise as to if our government is making the right decisions. Americans should define the concept of logical when judging their government based off what is right for America as a whole. Some decisions made by government are necessary and might be directed to a certain economy class. For instance, the government might pass a law or act that benefits the lower classes while those in middle and higher class are not affected. Decisions that are made that won’t necessarily be effective right away, but more towards the near future should be brought to attention as well. People don’t understand that when the government says they are going to improve something or pass a law that will be beneficial...
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...Phil 203 - Logic - Handout #1 It is important to be able to distinguish between a valid argument and a sound argument. A valid argument is one in which the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises, such that if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true. A sound argument is one that is valid and the premisses are true (hence the conclusion is also true). Here is an example of a valid deductive argument with true premises and a true conclusion (notice it is in the form of a syllogism): Premiss 1: If the North won the Civil War, then the slaves were freed. Premiss 2: The North won the Civil War. Conclusion: Therefore, the slaves were freed. But consider this argument: Premiss 1: If the South won the Civil War, then the slaves were freed. Premiss 2: The South won the Civil War. Conclusion: Therefore, the slaves were freed. Here, the argument is valid even though both premises are false and the conclusion is true. It is valid, because if the premises were true, then the conclusion would be true also. The conclusion still follows from the premises. Are the following valid? Premiss 1: All seniors are talented (F) Premiss 2: All talented people are ugly (F) Conclusion: All seniors are ugly (F) Premiss 1: All ugly people are seniors (F) Premiss 2: All seniors are insightful (F) Conclusion: All ugly people are insightful (T) Premiss 1: All ugly people...
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...Logic Application Shannon Will Professor Taylor Algebra with Applications May 31, 2012 I am playing “Guess Your Cards” with Andy, Belle, and Carol. Andy has drawn a 1, 3 & 7, Belle a 3, 4 & 7, and Carol a 4, 6 & 8. No one can see their own cards. Question cards are drawn and asked to help each player deduce what their own cards are. I believe deductive reasoning would be the logic used to solve this problem; you have the facts in front of you. The deck has only cards with the numbers 1 through 9 on them, you can see the cards already drawn and deduct, by the answers to the questions, exactly what cards you have. Let’s start with the first question. “Do you see two or more players whose cards sum to the same value?” Andy answers “yes”. Of the cards I can see, no two people have the same sum. I deduce that I must have the second set. Adding the cards of each person, I can see that Andy’s cards equal 11, Belle’s equal 14, and Carol’s equal 18. My set of cards must equal one of these. Second, “Of the five odd numbers, how many different odd numbers do you see?” Belle answers that she sees all of them. I can only see 1, 3, & 7. Therefore, I must have a 5 and a 9. These are the only two odd numbers that I cannot see. The statement that states that Andy knows what cards he has is totally irrelevant to the problem. It has absolutely no bearing on my logic or what cards I have. Knowing I have a 5 and a 9, I only have to figure out what my last card...
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...Phylicia Charles Instructor: Dr. Abed Almala MAT 104: Algebra with Application December 4, 2011 The problem What cards do I have in a guessing game with each card labeled one through nine? This game is being played with three friends and we can only see what each other have since when we draw the cards it goes on our heads without us seeing what we draw. We have to use logic and math to figure what card(s) we have on our heads. The approach I would use inductive reasoning to solve this problem. This would allow me to logically reason and reach conclusions based on the observations. This means I can look at the cards on my friends head, calculate how much of each number is present in the deck and probability that of me drawing one of the same card my friends have or a different card. In this game I would be using a lot of conjecture; because the evidence is uncertain or incomplete. Conclusion The recommended course of action was to use logic. The type of logic I recommend and used was inductive .Inductive reasoning was useful by using conjecture to find out what cards I had on my head. Another recommendation is to know the amount of each number so that I was able to calculate the probability of drawing a card that one of my three friends has or entirely different cards. I was able to generalize by making individual observation by paying keen attention to my three friends. Solutions Details This would be solved for example there are 4 of each...
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...A child’s perception of the world is in part based of the logical conclusions they make. There are many comedic television episodes about children asking amusing questions about the logic of things, followed by acting in a manner based off the logic they then created Aristotle did not appear to be trying to sway anyone, he did, however, try to create a logical system and/or rationales for grouping and classifying all things, natural and metaphysical, within his scope of the world. His explanations for grouping and classifying were logical based on observations, and for the things that could not be observed, he applied a scientific logical explanation that made sense to his level of understanding, very much like how my nieces and nephews to when they cannot find a way to accurately explain something they don’t have the experience to yet fully comprehend. Aristotle placed man at the head of the evolutionary ladder. His multifaceted reasoning for doing so includes his rational over the obvious physical superior nature of man over all other forms of life, as well as man possessing a soul, a unique characteristic that separated man from other animals. Aristotle thoughtfully included room for others creatures who may have a soul, with the ambiguous loophole he created that stated “if there are others, (man)…has the most”. (Aristotle 25). Life process had been occurring before Aristotle’s existence, but there had not really been any formal taxonomy created to begin a definable...
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...1. The following argument violates some principles of well-crafted arguments: While 1[there is much wickedness in the world,] 2[then there is also much good.] For 3[if there is evil, then there must be good,] since 4[good and evil are relative, like big and small.] And no one will deny that 5[evil exists.] Answer questions ‘a’ to ‘e’ below from the passage above. A) Write a well-crafted version of the argument, replacing the emotionally loaded verbiage with more neutral language. 1. The world has much good and evil. b) Examine each statement and explain the reference to the language and sentences used as to how you could decide whether this argument is valid or invalid. The language used is uniformed and charitable. The linkage between the premises and conclusion is not obscured. Statement 1 and 2 are true premises. Argument 3 may be classified as false because evil is not a must in this world nor is good. The argument is valid because the conclusion links to premise although some premises in the argument are false. c) Give one examples each of how hedges and assurances are used in arguments that are not well-crafted. Assurances indicate that the writer is confident in the premise or conclusion. For example: Messi and Ronaldo are good football players. Everyone knows that Messi is a better footballer than Ronaldo. The assurance in the argument above is ‘Everyone knows that’. In the argument, the writer is confident that that in his statement that Messi...
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