...Eloïse Stark Midterm Essay How to explain that women still get lower wages than men in the OECD countries? In western countries since the Second World War, women’s growing participation on the labor market has been one of the most profound transformations not only of the economy but also of society as a whole. Dual income families have become the norm and in a bid for sexual equality, most OECD countries have created laws to protect pay equality for men and women, such as the Equal Pay Act in 1963 in the US, or the article 119 of the EEC treaty. Nonetheless, women continue to earn less than men in all OECD countries. There are different ways of measuring this. Comparing annual or monthly earnings shows the difference between what both sexes “take home”, which is interesting from a sociological perspective. However we shall focus on the “gender pay gap”, defined as the “the relative difference in the average gross hourly earnings of women and men working full time”. This shows the difference between the actual “price” of women and men’s labor, taking into consideration the fact that men work more hours on average. How does the gender gap stand today? Despite differences between countries the gender pay gap remains a persistent characteristic of OECD labor markets. In 2006, women earned an average of 16% less than men, per hour worked. … Although we can see a slow but continuous drop over the past few decades in all countries In OECD countries, which are...
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...of a field experiment in which a random subsample of older workers was given information about key Social Security provisions, while a control group was not. The experiment was designed to examine whether it is possible to affect individual behavior using a relatively inexpensive informational intervention about the provisions of a public program and to explore what mechanisms underlie the behavior change. We find that our relatively mild intervention (sending an informational brochure and an invitation to a webtutorial) significantly increased labor force participation one year later and that this effect is driven by female subjects. The information intervention increased the perceived returns to working longer, especially among female respondents, which suggests that the behavioral response can be attributed at least in part to updated information about Social Security. Key words: Social Security Incentives; Field Experiment; Labor Force Participation; Knowledge; Expectations; Retirement; Benefit Claim Age, Earnings Test. * Liebman: Harvard Kennedy School and NBER. Luttmer: Economics Department at Dartmouth College, and NBER. Corresponding author: Erzo Luttmer, Erzo.FP.Luttmer@Dartmouth.Edu. We thank John Geanakoplos, David Laibson, Annamaria Lusardi, Brigitte Madrian, Susann Rohwedder, and Stephen Zeldes for helpful comments. We thank Kate Mikels, Abdul Tariq, and Victoria Levin for superb research assistance. This research was supported by the U.S. Social Security...
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...What is Child Labor? Child labor is work that harms children or keeps them from attending school. Around the world , growing gaps between rich and poor in recent decades have forced millions of young children out of school and into work. The International Labor Organization estimates that 246 million children between the ages of 5 and 17 currently work under conditions that are considered illegal, hazardous, or extremely exploitative. Underage children work at all sorts of jobs around the world, usually because they and their families are extremely poor. Large numbers of children work in commercial agriculture, fishing, manufacturing, mining, and domestic service. Some children work in illicit activities like the drug trade and prostitution or other traumatic activities such as serving as soldiers. The child is the father of the man”. Children should be imparted noble values and virtues so that they can grow up as good and responsible citizen of the country. It is indeed unfortunately that we find children being forced to wok in order earn their livelihood. Thus the hand should be used for play or studies are used for hard manual work. Thus a childhood is wasted, which comes once in life of a man. Child labor in Bangladesh, it is a very sympathetic also a great sorrow for us we are really unable to take necessary action against them to remove elegy of child labor. Somebody say Bangladesh is a developing country but actually our country is poor. Economic problems are a most...
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...Supply and Demand of Labor Shannon Sampson XECO/212 James Nzokah April 20, 2012 Throughout history there have been many different events that have affected the supply and demand of labor, but there are few that have had as great of an effect as the Black Death. Considered to be one of the worst disasters to hit per industrial Europe, the Black Death swept through Europe from 1347 -1353, and was responsible for shifting the demand for labor and the supply of it in a way few other events have done at any point in history, Prior to the onset of the Black Death in 1347 (Routt, 2010) the demand for labor was lower than the supply of it, Europe was crowded and there was plenty of people to choose from to get the work done, so the lords were able to pay lower wages due to the shear fact that there was always someone willing to work for less just to put food on their table. In 1353 when all was said and done the population of the European people had been diminished by a staggering amount. (Routt, 2010) This lose in so many human lives shifted the ready supply of labor. Even though the demand for labor was less due to this same loss of life, it was still higher than the ready supply of labor. This shift to demand being higher than the supply meant that a person could charge more for their labors. This accrued all a crossed the labor markets so it effected everyone. (Routt, 2010) Bibliography Routt, D. (2010, april 02). The Economic Impact of the Black...
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...requirement for one product that is created due to the purchase of another product. It occurs for consumers who purchase goods for further production, because their purchases are based on the demand for their final product.[1] For example, when the demand for automobiles is high, the derived demand for steel, and all other products used to make automobiles, is also high. Should the demand for automobiles drop, so will the demand for the products used to make the automobiles. Derived demand applies particularly to strategic human resources planning in relation to labour. Demand and supply of labour interact to determine the wages and affects the allocation of labour resources in ta corporation. It involves anticipating both the need for labor and the labor supply while planning programs necessary to ensure the organization will have the right mix of employees. The demand for labour is derived form the demand for the goods and services that labour is used to produce. Additionally the demand for labour is influenced by the level of economic activity, the productivity of labour and relative cost of labour compared to capital.[2] The demand and supply of labour are influenced by both macroeconomic and microeconomic factors. Macroeconomics refer to conditions in the whole economy affecting the general labour market. Microeconomic factors include specific industry and company conditions that influence the demand and supply of labour for particular occupations and labour skills. These are...
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...Josh Dean U.S. History to 1877 online Unit 1 essay I chose the northern colonies as the colony that I would most like to live in. I chose the north because it seems more stable for a family to live in. The northern colonies had a much healthier life style with a life span that averaged into the seventies. The north was a much tighter society that lived in smaller communities that worked and socialized together. I also like the fact that the settlements were also more organized then the other two colonies. I like the fact that when the northern colonies layed out a town they did it in an organized fashion with the town hall in the center or town were they would worship and have meeting. Around the town hall they would lay out the houses for the people to live so they were close to the center of town. I think this also would help with town defense against attacking Indians and other hostile groups. I also like the fact that the families were given land that had wood and a place to grow crops. This would help immigrants just arriving that they would have the security of knowing they had land to live on. Also the fact that towns with 50 or more families would start a school, which shows the importance of education in the northern colonies. The fact that the north was moral in most of their choices for the community would be a major factor for me deciding to choose the northern colonies to live in. Like the fact that the northern colonies is the anti-slavery stance...
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...Sociological Research, vol. 50, no. 6, November–December 2011, pp. 17–31. © 2011 M.E. Sharpe, Inc. All rights reserved. ISSN 1061–0154/2011 $9.50 + 0.00. DOI 10.2753/SOR1061-0154500602 G.P. Bessokirnaia The Dynamics of Workers’ Values and Labor Motives (2003–2007) Research on workers in Russia shows that attitudes toward work are strongly influenced by conditions in the workplace, and that this is the case for both males and females. The dynamics of the core values of everyday activities and labor motives of Moscow workers in the 1990s [1], and changes in the basic life values and motives of workers in the period 1990–2003 [2], were the subject of studies the author conducted in collaboration with V.D. Patrushev [3, pp. 77–99], to whose memory I dedicate this article. The present author carried out a comparative analysis of the basic life values and labor motives of workers in Pskov in 1995–2007 [4]. This article presents the results of the analysis of the dynamics of the values and labor motives of workers during a relatively stable period of the development of Russian society, during a period of economic growth. The surveys of workers were carried out in the same machine-building plants in Briansk, Pskov, and Kirov in 2003 and 2007.1 All three cities are oblast centers of regions that, according to the classification devised English translation © 2011 M.E. Sharpe, Inc., from the Russian text © 2010 the author. “Dinamika tsennosti i motivov truda rabochikh (2003–7...
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...CHAPTER 9 LABOUR PRACTICES AND WORKING CONDITIONS IN TNCS: THE CASE OF TOYOTA KIRLOSKAR IN INDIA KRISHNA SHEKHAR LAL DAS & SOBIN GEORGE 1. INTRODUCTION The study on the working conditions and labour practices in Toyota Kirloskar in India is part of the network research on Transnational Corporation Monitoring in Asia. Since 2002 the Asian Transnational Corporation (ATNC) Monitoring Network has been operational to build up a regional network through which labour organisations in different Asian countries can pursue concrete solidarity actions to improve working conditions of workers employed in transnational corporations (TNC). Against this backdrop, it is aimed to have a closer look at the labour management and forms of employment in automobile and electronics sectors invested by Asian TNCs in Asia. As part of this endeavour, the Centre for Education and Communication (CEC), New Delhi collaborated with the network research coordinated by Asia Monitor Resource Centre (AMRC), Hong Kong to observe the labour practices of Asian TNCs invested in India. In the first phase the network research focused on the movement of capital and its impact on labour by engaging desk research on foreign direct investment (FDI) flows and related aspects. In the current phase, emphasis is on specific cases of labour practices and labour conditions in selected ATNCs. 1.1 Methodology The present study is situated in the wider context of the dichotomy between labour and capital. The changes of production...
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...the quantity of output i.e. output depends upon input. Input is the starting point and output is the end point of production process and such input-output relationship is called as "Production Function". All factors of production like land, labor, capital and entrepreneur are required altogether at a time to produce a commodity. In economics, production means creation or an addition of utility. Factors of production can be classified into four categories. Such as: 1. Land 2. Labour 3. Capital 4. Enterprise Factors of production refer to inputs required for conducting production. Input is the starting point of every production activity. According to Prof. Benham, "Anything that contributes towards output is a factor of production." Mere existence of anything doesn't make it a factor of production but its contribution in production process is a necessary condition. Dr. Alfred Marshall described factors of production as "Agents of Production". Cooperation among factors is essential to produce anything because production is not a job of single factor Four Factors of Production in Economics - Chart Following chart provides brief tabulated information on 4 factors of production. * Mention the features of Land, Labor. * Land:- Land is a Natural and primary factor of Production. Land is not created by mankind but it is a gift of nature. So, it is called as natural factor of production. It is also called as original or primary factor of production...
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...production Labor as factor of production is any human effort used productively (with an output of goods or services) for which payment is made. Honorary work and work for enjoyment are excluded Special Features of Labour Perish ability - cannot be stored, today's effort cannot be saved for tomorrow; Inseparability from labour - cannot be transferred by owner; Immobility as compared to capital and enterprise; Supply of labour not adjustable in short run (it takes 20 years to produce a worker). Labor as a factor of production: Labor is human recourse of production. Any form of physical or mental effort done to the production of goods and services with a view to earn reward, is called labor e.g. Worker, clerk, teacher, doctor, judge, typist etc. According to Marshall, "Any exertion of mind or body undergone partly or wholly with a view to some good other than the pleasure derived directly from the work is called labor. Characteristics of Labor: These are the characteristics of labor as a factor of production. 1. Labor is Inseparable: Labor is inseparable from the labor himself, because he is the source of his own labor power. 2. Sole of Labor: A laborer cannot be sold but a laborer has to sell, his labor in person. 3. Perishable: The labor of a laborer cannot be stored because it is perishable. 4. Bargaining power: Laborer has a weak bargaining power and he has to accept the wage offered to him. 5. Wastage of labor: Labor ban be wasted...
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...days. Today, women only take some roles in consideration. Staying home and taking care of the house is no longer women’s number one priority. Instead, working outside of the home whether its part time or full-time is much more popular. A large percentage of women these days choose to be in the workplace, to be independent and support their families rather than staying home. A lot of families depend on the mother’s income especially during these tough economic times. Years ago, not a big percentage of women were seen in the work force. During much of the 20th century, especially the 1970s and 1980s , we started seeing more women in the work force By 1990, the work force was 47 percent female and 53 percent male, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Many view this as one of the most important and desirable social and economic transformations of our lifetimes. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, and until this recession, women...
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...------------------------------------------------- Child labour From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A succession of laws on child labour, the so-calledFactory Acts, were passed in Britain in the 19th century. Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, those aged 9-16 could work 16 hours per day per Cotton Mills Act. In 1856, the law permitted child labour past age 9, for 60 hours per week, night or day. In 1901, the permissible child labour age was raised to 12.[1][2] Child labour refers to the employment of children in any work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, and that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful.[3] This practice is considered exploitative by manyinternational organisations. Legislations across the world prohibit child labour.[4][5] These laws do not consider all work by children as child labour; exceptions include work by child artists, supervised training, certain categories of work such as those by Amish children, and others.[6][7] Child labour was employed to varying extents through most of history. Before 1940, numerous children aged 5–14 worked in Europe, the United States and various colonies of European powers. These children worked in agriculture, home-based assembly operations, factories, mining and in services such as newsies. Some worked night shifts lasting 12 hours. With the rise of household income, availability of schools and passage of...
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...WORK IN CONNECTICUT: 1880-1920 In 1977 the average women could expect to spend 27.6 years of her life in the work force, compared with 38.3 years of men. Women workers are concentrated in low paying dead end jobs. As a result, the average women worker earns only about three-fifths of that a man does, even when both work full time year round (U. S. Department of Labor, “20 Facts on Women Workers,” 1980). How did women inherit this inferior position in the United States work place? Has it always been this way? Has their position improved since the country industrialized at the turn of the century? Do male or female workers have control over the types of jobs they get and the working conditions they find there? Though most American women have always been relegated to low-level, subservient jobs in and out of the home, many have been able to exercise varying degrees of choice in their work lives. Between 1880 and 1920 the choices available to women expanded due to the change in job definition, technology, the production pressures of World War 1, the growing militancy of women workers riding the tide of labor unrest during the war, and the increased acceptance of women in the work force. The period of 1880 to 1920 is of particular importance in our economic history because the structure of our present economic world developed at that time. Many new jobs were stereotyped by sex, while many jobs opportunities opened up for small number of women in various formerly all-male...
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...1. Many experts argue that people do their best work when they are motivated by a sense of purpose rather than the pursuit of money. Do you agree? Critically evaluate and explain your position. The study of what motivates people has fascinated researchers and academics over the years. Many renowned researchers have come up with their own model explaining the mechanisms of motivation. Though all these theories are unique in their own right, the division of motivations into two forms; extrinsic motivations and intrinsic motivations is a common sight. Both these factors have their place in getting people out of their beds in the morning and trading the better part of their waking hours for work. However, for people to do their best work, a sense of purpose is often more useful than the pursuit of money. The type of job and position are also key factors in determining whether money or a sense of purpose will be the better motivating factor that encourages people to deliver their best work. George Bernard Shaw once said that “Lack of money is the root of all evil.” Money is defined as whether money is shells or rocks or gold or paper, in any economy it has three primary functions: it is a medium of exchange, a unit of account and a store of value. Of these three functions, its function as a medium of exchange is what distinguishes money from other assets such as stocks, bonds or houses (Mishkin, 1992). The pursuit of money is rooted in human behaviour today and the motivations for...
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...Historical Example of Labor Supply and Demand Darrell Scott Puehler XECO/212 April-13, 2012 Mathewos Kassa Historical Example of Labor Supply and Demand The Black Death was the largest demographic disaster in European history. Known as the "great pestilence," the Black Death arrived in Italy in late 1347 and made a clockwise movement across the continent where it eventually died out in the Russian hinterlands in 1353 (Routt, 2010) . It had a major impact on the demand and supplies of labor of the European economy especially the agricultural sector of the European job market. Because of the devastating effect of the Black Death, was not felt for a generation the supply for labor was plentiful due to the fact of the peasant population. If one peasant worker fell to his or her death during the onslaught of this pandemic disaster, then another was easily found to replace the lost worker. However, one generation later the effects of the Black Death on the labor market began to take shape. By the 14th century, the agricultural revolution and good climate had provided a high demand for land in England, which meant more workers were needed to farm this land thus, raising the demand for agricultural laborers (Peschke, 2007). However, the effects of the Black Death were finally realized. There was just too much land and not enough workers. The Black Death caused the supply of these workers to decrease and the resulting effect of the decrease in supply and the increase of demand...
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