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Manager

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[Chapter 3] Hardwar : Input, Procession, and Output Devices Computer systems : integrating the power of technology
- Employing information technology and providing additional processing capabilities can increase employee productivity, expand business opportunities, and allow for more flexibility.
- To assemble an effective and efficient system, you should select and organize components while understanding the trade-offs between overall system performance and cost, control, and complexity. ex) Racecar : power delivery(effective and efficiency), how much(cost), how reliable(control), how many engine(complexity)

hardware components
- computer system hardware components include devices that perform input, processing, date, and output. - Central processing unit (CPU) consists of three associated elements : the arithmetic/logic unit, the control unit, and the register areas.
- Primary storage, also called main memory or memory, is closely associated with the CPU. Memory holds program instructions and data immediately before or after the registers.

Hardwar components in Action : instruction and execution
Instruction time : Step 1) fetch instruction, step 2) decode instruction
Execution time : step 3) execute instruction, step 4) store result
Completing the instruction phase followed by the execution phase is called a machine cycle. Some processing units can speed processing by using pipelining, whereby the processing unit gets one instruction, decodes another, and executes a third at the same time.

Processing and memory devices : Power, Speed, and Capacity
The components responsible for processing – the CPU and memory – are housed together in the same box or cabinet, called the system unit.
MIPS : millions of instructions per second, a measure of machine cycle time
Clock Speed : A series of electronic pulses produced at a predetermined rate that affects machine cycle time. The clock speed does not directly related to the true processing speed of the computer. The faster the clock speed of the CPU, the more heat that is generated. Solve Heat problem - Demand-based switching(intel), direct jet impingement(IBM, HP)
The control unit in the CPU manages the stages of the machine cycle by following predetermined internal instructions, known as microcode. Microcode : predefined, elementary circuits and logical operations that the processor performs when it executes an instruction. The shorter the interval between pulses, the faster each microcode instruction can be executed.
Cell Broadband Engine Architecture (or simply Cell) is a microprocessor architecture that provides power-efficient, cost-effective, and high-performance processing for a wide range of applications. (Sony)

Physical Characteristic of the CPU
Moore’s Law : a hypothesis stating that transistor densities on a single chip double every two years.
Core 2 : a new material called “high-k”, the material replaces the thin layer of silicon dioxide insulation.
Intel has defined a new manufacturing strategy to introduce chips and manufacturing technologies every two years. Intel refers to this as their “tick-tock” strategy, which will drive Intel to make smaller changes to its chip designs more frequently.
IBM developed technology to send information between processors using light pulses instead of electrical signals. 100 times faster, one-tenth the power.
Memory Characteristics and Function
Byte(B) -> KB -> MB -> GB -> TB -> PB(peta) -> EB (Exa)
Random Access Memory (RAM) : A form of memory in which instructions or data can be temporarily stored. Volatile storage devices - SRAM (Static RAM) : Byte-addressable storage used for high-speed registers and caches - DRAM (Dynamic RAM) : Byte-addressable storage used for the main memory in a computer - DDR SDRAM : an improved form of DRAM
Read-only memory (ROM) : A nonvolatile form of memory - PROM : PROMs are programmed in an external device for reprogramming - EPROM : EPROM chips are initially written in an external programmer device and must be removed from the circuit board and placed back in the device for reprogramming. - EEPROM : User-modifiable read-only memory that can be erased and reprogrammed repeatedly through the application of higher than normal electrical voltage. - Flash : Used for storage modules fro USB drives and digital camera memory cards. Able to erase a block of data in a flash - NOR Flash : Flash memory that support 1-byte random access so that machine instructions can be fetched and executed directly from the flash chip just like computers fetch instructions from main memory - NAND Flash : Flash Translation Layer software enables NAND flash memory cards and USB drives to look like a regular disk drive to the operating system
- FeRAM : Can hold data in memory even when the power is disconnected and offers the higher speed of
SDRAM
- PCM(Phase Change Memory) : One of a number of new memory technologies that may eventually replace flash memory
- MRAM(Magnetoresistive RAM) : A nonvolatile random access memory chip based on magnetic polarization that reads and writes data faster than flash memory
Cache memory : A type of high-speed memory that a processor can access more rapidly than main memory. Helps to ease this bottleneck (speed up, performance not kept pace) L1-on the chip, L2-can be accessed by the CPU over a high-speed dedicated interface, L3-L2 cache directly on the CPU
Chip manufactures are competing to develop a nonvolatile memory chip that requires minimal power, offers extremely fast write speed, and can store data accurately even after a large number of write-erase cycles. Such a chip could eliminate the need for RAM and simplify and speed up memory processing. PCM, FeRAM, and MRAM are three potential approaches to provide such a memory device.

Multiprocessing
Multiprocessing involves the simultaneous execution of two or more instructions at the same time. One form of multiprocessing uses coprocessors. A coprocessor speeds procession by executing specific types of instructions while the CPU works on another processing activity. Coprocessors can be internal or external to the CPU and can have different clock speeds than the CPU. Each type of coprocessor performs a specific function.
Multicore microprocessor combines two or more independent processors into a single computer so that they can share the sorkload and boost processing capacity. In addition, a dual-core processor enables people to perform multiple tasks simultaneously, such as playing a game and burning a CD. The use of low clock speed, multicore processors with a shared cache is another approach to reduce the heat generaged by the computer without reducing its processing power.
Viiv + Core 2 Quad processor with additional hardware and software to build an extremely powerful multimedia computer capable of running the highly processing-intensive applications associated with high-definition entertainment, including the following
- Full 1080P video playback of movie clips, media streams, and HD video cameras
- High-quality audio for surround-sound capabilities from movies and music
- Fast, extremely high-quality photo editing, retouching, and publishing
- Capability to watch, record, and pause live TV

Parallel Computing
Parallel computing is the simultaneous execution fo the same task on multiple processors to obtain results faster. Massively parallel processing systems. The dual-core processors mentioned earlier are a simple form of parallel computing
Grid computing is the use of a collection of computers, often owned by multiple individuals or organizations, to work in a coordinated manner to solve a common problem. Grid computing is a low-cost approach to parallel computing. Key to the success of grid computing is a central server that acts as the grid leader and traffic monitor. Ex) bird flu, drug discovery, folding@home, playstation 3,
The most frequent uses for parallel computing include modeling, simulation, and analyzing large amount of data.
Cloud computing involves using a giant cluster of computers that serves as a host to run applications that require high-performance computing. Cloud computing supports a wider variety of applications than grid computing and pools computing resources so they can be managed primarily be software rather than people.

Secondary Storage

[Chapter4] Software : Systems and Application Software

Microcode :
Executing any
The role of the central processing unit and main memory
Parallel computing system

[Chapter5&9] Organizing Data and Information Through TPS, ERP, and other Enterprise systems

[Chapter6] Telecommunication and Networks

[Chapter7&8] eCommerce system

[Chapter10&11] DSS and Expert systems

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