...boiling point of 100°C at atmospheric pressure, not flammable. Alcohol: molecular mass of 46.07, density of 0.789 g/cm³, refractive index of 1.36242, solid denser than the liquid, slightly more acidic than water, boiling point of 78°C at atmospheric pressure, highly flammable Water (along with life) is what sets our planet apart from our neighbors and it is the topic of this chapter. The hydrosphere is the watery part of the Earth, but this is a little misleading since it gives the impression that there is one place where water occurs. Instead, water is everywhere, or nearly so. Water is present in the atmosphere, in the form of vapor, liquid, and solid. It is tied up in rocks, locked away in the crystal lattices of minerals that make up rocks; it occurs in the innumerable small pore spaces of rocks, from the surface to depths greater than 5 km. Water is also tied up in living organisms; humans, for example, contain about 70% water. Water is stored in ice sheets large and small, it occurs in various surface water bodies, and, of course the oceans, the reservoir of the great majority of Earth's water. The hydrosphere, then, is intimately tied up with all of the other spheres that make up our whole Earth system. Inventory of Water Here is a partial breakdown of...
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...may have originated in space rather than on Earth, and considers the evidence in support of the various theories about how that may have happened, if it did. Such theories are called “panspermia” theories from the Greek for “all seeds”—the seeds of life existing everywhere in space. One of the critical issues in any discussion of life from beyond the Earth is how we define life at all. In most scientific circles, the modern definition of life has become “life as we currently recognize it” rather than “any possible type of life imaginable.” Yet even the definition of what we declare to be recognizable is constantly updated as we discover life here on Earth that survives in extreme conditions of heat, radiation, extreme acids, unusual chemistries (sulfur-based), and even inside rocks buried deep underground. The bottom line condition for life “as we know it” seems at this point to be the presence of liquid water at least at some time in the past, if not the present. (Sonali S. Joshi 2008) Panspermia Theories of the Origin of Life Most theories of the origin of life assume that it developed from some type of organic molecule “soup” which spontaneously developed into self-replicating molecules and from...
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...ABSTRACT Thermodynamics is the science of heat and temperature and, in particular, of the laws governing the conversion of thermal energy into mechanical, electrical, or other forms of energy. It is a central branch of science that has important applications in chemistry, physics, biology, and engineering. What makes thermodynamics such a powerful tool? It is a completely logical discipline and can be applied without any sophisticated mathematical techniques. The immense practical value of thermodynamics lies in the fact that it systematizes the information obtained from experiments performed on systems and enables us to draw conclusions, without further experimentation, about other aspects of the same systems and about similar aspects of other systems. It allows us to predict whether a certain reaction will proceed and what the maximum yield might be. Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science concerning such properties as pressure, temperature, and volume. Unlike quantum mechanics, thermodynamics is not based on a specific molecular model, and therefore it is unelected by our changing concepts of atoms and molecules. Indeed, the major foundations of thermodynamics were laid long before detailed atomic theories became available. This fact is one of its major strengths. Furthermore, thermodynamics helps us predict the direction and extent of chemical reactions; it tells us nothing about the rate of a process. First Law of Thermodynamics Introduction The first law of conservation...
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...ate Aptitude Test in Engineering GATE 2014 Brochure Table of Contents 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................1 2. About GATE 2014 ......................................................................................................1 2.1. Financial Assistance ............................................................................................................................ 1 2.2 Employment ............................................................................................................................................ 2 2.3 Administration ....................................................................................................................................... 2 3.1 Changes Introduced in GATE 2013 that will continue to remain in force for GATE 2014 .......................................................................................................................................................... 3 4.1 Eligibility for GATE 2014 ................................................................................................................... 4 4.2 GATE Papers ............................................................................................................................................ 5 4.3 Zone-Wise List of Cities in which GATE 2014 will be Held ................................................... 6 4.4 Zone-Wise List of Cities for 3rd...
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...Study Guide: Final Exam Concentrate your studies in the following areas. Questions for the Final Exam will come principally from this material. Lutgens and Tarbuck Textbook: Earthquakes and Structures (Chapter 6) * Know the definition of an earthquake (pg. 190). * Know the difference between the focus and epicenter of an earthquake. Which is located at the source of the earthquake? Which is located on the surface of the earth directly above the source? * Understand the concept of elastic rebound. What is it? How are earthquakes produced via elastic rebound? * Know the three basic types of seismic waves * Body waves - P waves (push/pull-- motion parallel - travel through solids/liquids/gas) * Body waves - S waves ("shake" -- motion perpendicular - travel through solids -- slower velocity than P waves) * surface waves (complex motion -- causes greatest destruction -- * ). What is the particle motion in each type of wave (e.g., particles move parallel to the direction of travel in P waves)? Which type of wave travels the fastest? Which type of wave is the slowest? Which type of wave arrives first at a seismic station? Which type of wave is the last to arrive at a seismic station? Which type of wave causes the most damage? Know which mediums each type of wave will move through (e.g., S waves will only move through solids). * Know the difference between a magnitude scale and an intensity scale. - Intensity: measure of the degree of earthquake...
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...Earth The overall composition of the Earth is very similar to that of meteorites, and because of this, it is thought that the Earth originally formed from Planetesimals composed largely of metallic iron and silicates. What makes Earth unique? Soon after the Earth formed, unique processes occurred - division into metallic core, silicate mantle and crust - which, along with surface water, made it different from the other planets in our Solar System. The formation of the early mantle was important as it consisted primarily of ferromagnesium silicate minerals, some of which contained water as an essential component (e.g. amphibole group minerals). Water-bearing magmas (molten rock) from deep in the lower mantle then rose towards the surface (being liquid, they were lighter than the surrounding solid rock) and emerged as volcanic eruptions. The Earth's atmosphere and hydrosphere developed from the degassing (loss of gaseous elements such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) of the early-formed core and mantle during this volcanic activity. In the present, abundant gases are still released from the Earth during volcanic eruptions and these are mainly composed of water (77%), carbon dioxide (12%), sulfur dioxide (7%), and nitrogen (3%), with minor amounts of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, sulfur, chlorine and argon. The Earth can be divided into two main parts. Atmosphere: measured from the surface of the Earth upwards to 150 km (anything above this is called space) Solid Earth: measured...
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...Porosity Porosity is defined as the percentage or fraction of void space to bulk volume of rock. If the sedimentary particles of a rock were of uniform size and packing, as shown inFigure 1 , Figure 1 Figure 2 , Figure 2 and Figure 3 , the calculation of porosity would be a simple exercise in solid geometry. Of course, actual reservoir rock is a much more complicated mixture of particles, and its porosity must be measured directly from core samples or estimated by well log analysis. Figure 3 The proportion and distribution of void space in a reservoir rock can be modified by the processes of cementation, solution, fracturing, and recrystallization. In reservoir engineering, primary porosity refers to the void spaces remaining after the sedimentation of particles into the rock matrix. Secondary porosity is caused by solution channels, fractures, and vugs in the bulk volume of the matrix, and is developed subsequent to the deposition of the rock. Where both types of porosity exist, the system is referred to as a dual porosity system. The production sequence of a dual porosity system may be very different from that of a primary porosity system.Table 1 (below) gives a general range of reservoir rock matrix porosities. Generally, reservoir rock martix porosities in the lower ranges are of commercial interest only when a secondary porosity system is present. Table 1--Rock matrix porosities (after Levorsen, 1967) : Negligible 0-5 Poor 5-10 Fair 10-15 ...
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...Name(s): __________________ and _____________________________ Section (lab day) _________ Lab 2: Plate Tectonics & the Origin of Magma – AGI 9th ed. Read Lab 2 p31-56. The aim of the lab is: A. To investigate some aspects of the plate tectonic model. B. To interpret rates and directions of plate movement C. To analyze data and associated geological processes & features. The theory of plate tectonics is a powerful and far-reaching theory encompassing many aspects of geology. The theory explains such diverse phenomena as mountain building on continents, the evolution of ocean basins, magma chemistry, the long-term migration of plants and animals, climatic change and the movement of continents. Turn to Lab 2 in the lab manual and read the introduction to each Part, then answer the questions in the manual in the corresponding spaces provided below. Introduction: Earth’s Size, Continents & Ocean Basins 1.1.a Read p 31-32. What was Alfred Wegener’s observation that led him to propose the Continental Drift Hypothesis ___________________________________. (1) 1.1.b Why was this rejected?___________________________________________. (1) Why did anti-drift scientists oppose this and what was their evidence or bias? _____________________________________________________________. (1) 1.1.c What alternative hypothesis did Bernard Lindemann (1927) and Otto Hilgenberg (1933) propose? _______________________________________________....
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...come principally from this material. Lutgens and Tarbuck Textbook: Earthquakes and Structures (Chapter 6) * Know the definition of an earthquake (pg. 190). --ground shaking caused by the sudden and rapid movement of one block of rock slipping past another along fractures in Earth’s crust called faults * Know the difference between the focus and epicenter of an earthquake. Which is located at the source of the earthquake? Which is located on the surface of the earth directly above the source? --Focus=Earthquakes tend to occur along preexisting faults where internal stresses have caused the crustal rocks to rupture or break into two or more units. The location where slippage begins is called the hypocenter, or focus. --Epicenter=The point on Earth’s surface directly above the hypocenter * Understand the concept of elastic rebound. What is it? How are earthquakes produced via elastic rebound? * --Elastic rebound=At some point, the stress along the fault overcomes the frictional resistance, and slip initiates. Slippage allows the deformed ( bent) rock to “ snap back” to its original, stress- free, shape; a series of earthquake waves radiate as it slides. Reid termed the “ spring-ing back” elastic rebound because the rock behaves elastically, much like a stretched rubber band does when it is released. * Know the three basic types of seismic waves (i.e., P waves, S waves, and surface waves). What is the particle motion in each type of wave (e.g., particles...
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...life we see today. Genetics, anatomy, physiology, neurology, morphology, and behavior all of these aspects of living organisms have evolved through time. The study of the evolutionary processes that produced these traits provides the comprehensive framework for understanding them. Theory Of Evolution Evolution Theory: - Evolution is technically defined as: "a gradual process in which something changes into a different and usually more complex or better form." As it is most famously used, "evolution" is the process by which an organism becomes more sophisticated over time and in response to its environment. The Theory of Evolution is currently the most popular concept of how life reached its current state. Evolution as a biological mechanism is driven by natural selection. This theory is favored by many scientists to explain phenomena in nature, so much so that it is generally assumed as factual in most studies. While much evidence proves biological evolution to be a fact, we have different theories to describe how evolution occurs. Many people assume that the theory put forth by Darwin in Origin of Species is the final say on evolutionary theory....
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...nuclear. Even mass can be considered a form of energy. Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system (a fixed mass) in two distinct forms: heat and work. For control volumes, energy can also be transferred by mass flow. An energy transfer to or from a closed system is heat if it is caused by a temperature difference. Otherwise it is work, and it is caused by a force acting through a distance. We start this chapter with a discussion of various forms of energy and energy transfer by heat. We then introduce various forms of work and discuss energy transfer by work. We continue with developing a general intuitive expression for the first law of thermodynamics, also known as the conservation of energy principle, which is one of the most fundamental principles in nature, and we then demonstrate its use. Finally, we discuss the efficiencies of some familiar energy conversion processes, and examine the impact on energy conversion on the environment. Detailed treatments of the first law of thermodynamics for closed systems and control volumes are given in Chaps. 4 and 5, respectively. Objectives The objectives of Chapter 2 are to: • Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms. • Define the nature of internal energy. • Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated with energy transfer by heat. • Discuss the three...
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...arrangement of semiconductor materials and electrical contacts, the transistor provides the same functions at reduced cost, weight and power consumption and with higher reliability. Subsequent advances in semiconductor technology, in part attributable to the intensity of research associated with the space exploration effort led to the development of the integrated circuit. Integrated circuits may contain hundreds of thousands of transistors on small piece of material and allow the construction of complex electronic circuits, such as those in microcomputers, audio, and video equipment and communication satellites. 1745 – Cuneus and Muschenbrock - in Leyden Netherlands, discover the Leyden jar. The first electrical capacitor, a storage mechanism for an electrical charge. 1746-1752 – Benjamin Franklin flew kites to demonstrate that lightning is a form of static electricity. 1785 – Charles Augustus Coulumb (1736 – 1806) invented the torsion balance. Coulomb showed electrical attraction and repulsion...
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...CA L I F O R N I A S TA N DA R D S T E S T Released Test Questions Earth Science Introduction - Earth Science The following released test questions are taken from the Earth Science Standards Test. This test is one of the California Standards Tests administered as part of the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) Program under policies set by the State Board of Education. All questions on the California Standards Tests are evaluated by committees of content experts, including teachers and administrators, to ensure their appropriateness for measuring the California academic content standards in Earth Science. In addition to content, all items are reviewed and approved to ensure their adherence to the principles of fairness and to ensure no bias exists with respect to characteristics such as gender, ethnicity, and language. This document contains released test questions from the California Standards Test forms in 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2008. First on the pages that follow are lists of the standards assessed on the Earth Science Test. Next are released test questions. Following the questions is a table that gives the correct answer for each question, the content standard that each question is measuring, and the year each question last appeared on the test. It should be noted that asterisked (*) standards found in the Science Content Standards for California Public Schools, Kindergarten through Grade 12, are not assessed on the California Standards Tests...
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...Module 3 Waves and the Electromagnetic Spectrum Topic: Waves 1. What is a wave? A wave is vibration that travels and all waves are created by something vibrating. Waves transport energy but do not transport mass. 2. Describe the following terms associated with waves: a. amplitude height of wave b. wavelength length of a wave c. frequency number of waves per second (Hz) d. period how long a wave lasts when it arrives at a fixed point (measured in seconds) 3. What are radio waves? An electromagnetic wave of a frequency used for long distant communication. 4. Explain the difference between a transverse wave and a longitudinal wave, and give examples of each. In a longitudinal wave, the vibration travels in the same direction that wave travels. Examples of longitudinal waves include: Sound, p-waves (earthquakes) In a transverse wave, the vibration direction is perpendicular to direction that wave travels. Examples include: Light/electromagnetic, (radio, microwave, xray, etc.), water waves, swaves (earthquakes). The major difference between longitudinal and transverse waves is their direction. Longitudinal waves move left to right while transverse waves move up and down. 5. Compare and contrast: light waves vs. sound waves Light waves are transverse and sound waves are longitudinal. Light waves can travel through a vacuum but sound waves cannot. Speed of light is nearly 300 million m/s while sound has a speed of about 340 m/s...
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...Science Content Standards A Message from the State Board of Education and the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. In 1998 California adopted academically rigorous content standards in science. The adoption of standards in each core subject area marked a turning point in the education reform movement that began in 1983 with the report A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform, by the National Commission on Excellence in Education. Until then, the reform movement had focused on important but largely structural improvements, such as more instructional time, minimum course requirements for high school diplomas, and an emphasis on local planning efforts to promote efficiency and effectiveness. The desire to improve student achievement was there, but the focus on content-that is, a comprehensive, specific vision of what students actually needed to know and be able to do-was lacking. Standards are a bold initiative. Through content standards in the core subjects, California began to redefine the state’s role in public education. For the first time, the knowledge and skills that students needed to acquire were explicitly stated for the most part by grade level, although science standards at the high school level were organized by discipline. The standards are rigorous. Students who master this content are on a par with those in the best educational systems in other states and nations. The content is attainable by all students, given sufficient time, except for those...
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