...Law”: Observing Anthocyanin in Brassica rapa Abstract The foundation of genetics lies with the principles that Gregor Mendel outlined after his experiments with pea plants where he discovered the relationship between physical characteristics, or phenotype, and genetic traits, or genotype. This experiment aimed to reproduce Mendel’s results with the Brassica rapa plant, noted for it’s fast generation time, and anthocyanin, a purple pigment that can be visually tracked through subsequent generations. It is important for experiments resulting in scientific discovery to be replicable and peer reviewed. Since Mendelian genetics are the foundation of scientific education, including answering questions about evolution and heredity of beneficial or fatal genes, his experiment is a valid and important choice. The hypothesis was that the presence of anthocyanin in Brassica rapa follows Mendel’s laws. By germinating the P1 generation and creating the F1 and F2 generations through pollination the hypothesis was tested. The experimental hypothesis was accepted with ------ error and the null hypothesis that these results were due to chance was rejected. Introduction A phenotype provides a clear visual cue for examining the inheritance pattern of genotypes and whether or not these patterns follow Mendelian genetic principles. Gregor Mendel is someone who is often referred to as the “father of genetics,” and discovered important theory pertaining to heredity. He did this by studying...
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...Mendelian Genetics in Drosophila Melanogaster: Fruit Fly Inheritance Results Total count for section & course data: Cross | Phenotype | Section 6 Total | Course Total | ap/ap x +/+ | wt | 211 | 2604 | | Apterous | 58 | 824 | | | | | | | | | X(w)X(w) x X(+)Y | wt females | 15 | 707 | | white females | 9 | 597 | | wt males | 13 | 633 | | White males | 13 | 614 | Totals | 760 | 11,754 | Table 1: Total counts for section and course data. Four crosses were experimented to determine F2 generation pooled data: a monohybrid cross, two-dihybrid crosses, and a sex-linked cross. X2 calculations for section data: ap/ap x +/+ | Phenotype | Observed | Expected | (O-E) | (O-E)2 | (O-E)2/E | wt | 211 | 202 | 9 | 81 | 0.40 | Apterous (ap) | 58 | 67 | -9 | 81 | 1.21 | Totals: | 269 | 269 | | 1.61 | Table 2: Section 6 results and X2 calculations for the monohybid F2 ap/ap x +/+ cross. The expected phenotypic frequency was 3:1 and the observed phenotypic frequency was also approximately 3:1. The calculated X2 value was 1.61. vg+/vg+; se/se x vg/vg; se+/se+ | Phenotype | Observed | Expected | (O-E) | (O-E)2 | (O-E)2/E | wt | 150 | 134 | 16 | 256 | 1.91 | Vestigial (vg) | 30 | 44 | -14 | 196 | 4.45 | Sepia (se) | 51 | 44 | 7 | 49 | 1.11 | Sepia/ Vestigial | 6 | 15 | -9 | 81 | 5.4 | Totals: | 237 | 237 | | 12.87 | Table 3: Section 6 results and X2 calculations for the dihybrid F2 vg+/vg+; se/se x vg/vg; se+/se+ cross. The...
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...MENDELIAN INHERITANCE OF PTC TASTING IN HUMANS ABSTRACT This experiment investigated Mendelian inheritance patterns of phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) tasting in humans. The results were in the expected monohybrid rations of 3 taster: 1 non-taster phenotypes respectively. This supported the hypothesis that the traits were controlled by one gene with two alleles, where T is dominant to t. INTRODUCTION Mendel’s Law of Segregation – that two copies of a character (gene) segregate from each other during the formation of gametes, is apparent in the inheritance of PTC tasting in humans (Begg, 1959). The PTC sensory variation was first discovered in the early 1930s by A.L. Fox, which subsequently led to much research. It was reported not long after that PTC tasting is controlled by one gene with two alleles, and that inheritance of these traits is that of Mendel’s monohybrid ration of 3:1. However, there is evidence to suggest transmission of PTC tasting is more complex than this (Kim & Drayna, 2005). The presence of the dominant allele T determines wether or not an individual can taste PTC. A monohybrid cross of two heterozygotes results in three possible genotypes – TT, Tt, and tt, the only non-taster phenotype being tt (Schull, 1948). This study investigated inheritance of PTC tasting in humans to determine wether or not taster and non-taster phenotypes fell into the expected Mendelian ration. It was hypothesised that there would be a ratio of 3 taster: 1 non-taster phenotypes...
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...Bio 405 Genetics Mendelian Inheritance This video is talking about the Mendelian genetics. This videos starts off by telling us the meaning of both genetics and heredity. Genetics can be used in many different subjects such as zoology, molecular biology, microbiology and topics dealing life as examples. It then goes on to discuss the father of genetics which is Gregor Mendel who was and Austrian monk that grew up with a family of religious beliefs. Throughout his life Gregor was interested in botany and mathematics. He is known as one of the first scientist applied mathematics to his science research. There was two viewpoints of heredity which where blending and particulate hypothesis. The blending hypothesis didn’t work when the father of evolution, Charles Darwin did not have enough evidence. The particulate hypothesis was then discovered by Gregor Mendel. This video also breaks down the meaning of genes and traits. You have different characteristics for genes and traits such a height, weight, and appearance. It then goes to tell us about the advantages Mendel had with us pea plants in his study. From the hybridization experiments, he induced two generalizations which later became known as Mendel's Principles of Heredity or Mendelian inheritance. The speaker of this video also proceeds to talk about alleles, which are known as variation of different genes. Most alleles are represented as the dominant trait. Mendel’s Principle of Dominance says that the dominant...
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...Outline Overview • Every day we observe heritable variations (such as brown, green, or blue eyes) among individuals in a population. • These traits are transmitted from parents to offspring. • One possible explanation for heredity is a “blending” hypothesis. ° This hypothesis proposes that genetic material contributed by each parent mixes in a manner analogous to the way blue and yellow paints blend to make green. ° With blending inheritance, a freely mating population will eventually give rise to a uniform population of individuals. ° Everyday observations and the results of breeding experiments tell us that heritable traits do not blend to become uniform. • An alternative model, “particulate” inheritance, proposes that parents pass on discrete heritable units, genes, that retain their separate identities in offspring. ° Genes can be sorted and passed on, generation after generation, in undiluted form. • Modern genetics began in an abbey garden, where a monk named Gregor Mendel documented a particulate mechanism of inheritance. A. Gregor Mendel’s Discoveries 1. Mendel brought an experimental and quantitative approach to genetics. • Mendel discovered the basic principles of heredity by breeding garden peas in carefully planned experiments. • Mendel grew up on a small farm in what is today the Czech Republic. • In 1843, Mendel entered an Augustinian monastery. • He studied at the University of Vienna from 1851 to...
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...APPLICATION OF STATISTICS IN MEDICAL GENETICS INTRODUCTION "Significance" has a very particular meaning in biology thanks to statistics. How does this term prove an experiment's results are worth special attention? Once one has performed an experiment, how can one tell if the results are significant? For example, say if we are performing a genetic cross in which we know the genotypes of the parents. In this situation, we might hypothesize that the cross will result in a certain ratio of phenotypes in the offspring. But what if our observed results do not exactly match our expectations? How can we tell whether this deviation was due to chance? The key to answering these questions is the use of statistics, which allows us, geneticists, to determine whether our data are consistent with our hypothesis. Statistics and Human Genetics are twin subjects, having grown with the century together, and there are many connections between the two. Some fundamental aspects in particular the concept of Analysis of Variance, first arose in Human Genetics, while statistical and probabilistic methods are now central to many aspects of analysis of questions is human genetics. The most common areas where one can find an extensive applications of statistical methods in human genetics is * Human Genome Project * Linkage Analysis * Sequencing STATISTICAL GENETICS Statistical Genetics involves the identification of genetic variation to help us understand why certain people are...
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...Cell Division, Chromosomes, and Inheritance Worksheet Complete all four sections of this worksheet. Section I: Mitosis and Meiosis Part 1: Review the following images on mitosis and meiosis. [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] [pic] Part 2: Explain the events you observe in the pictures. The top picture is mitosis. The phases listed in order from left to right are: interphase, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During interphase the DNA is replicated and ready for entering of mitosis. During prophase the spindle fibers and centrioles start to move to opposite sides of the cell (2009). This is the longest phase. It is also in this stage that you can begin to see that there are two chromosomes attached together (double helix). In Prometaphase the chromosomes are attached to the spindle fibers and begin to move toward the metaphase plate region (2009). When the chromosomes are lined up it is called metaphase. During anaphase the chromosomes begin to separate into the sister chromatids and start to move toward the opposite poles. Finally in telophase the two sets of identical chromosomes are separated into two new cells. (2009). Web link: Mitosis and the Cell Cycle [Multimedia]. Retrieved from EBOOK COLLECTION: Klug, W. S., Cummings, M. R., Spencer, C. A., & Palladino, M. A., BIO 410 website. The bottom picture is meiosis. The same stages are present but since the amount of chromosomes has to be cut in half first there are...
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...Heredity Heredity is the transmission from one generation to the next of factors that determine the traits of offspring. Although successful breeding of plants and animals was practiced by humans long before modern civilizations were established, there is no evidence that these early people understood the nature of hereditary factors or how they are transmitted through reproduction. EARLY HISTORY One of the early Greek philosophers, Pythagoras (582-509 BC), postulated that all traits of an offspring are derived solely from its father's semen. Aristotle thought that females also produce semen and that the embryo is formed by a fusion in the uterus of both types of semen. He further postulated that both male and female semen are produced by the body's blood. Leeuwenhoek Until the 17th century, European medical schools taught that hereditary factors in the semen were derived from vapors emanating from each body organ. However, Anton van LEEUWENHOEK observed human semen through his microscope and reported finding "animalcules." It became generally accepted that sperm were the actual carriers of hereditary factors from males to their offspring. Other biologists studied the ovaries of animals, noted the presence of swollen bodies--which they correctly assumed contained eggs--and hypothesized that these eggs were also units of transmission of hereditary factors. Epigenesis Some biologists of the 17th and 18th centuries believed that they saw miniature individuals...
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...NAME ___ANSWER KEY_____________________________________ CH. 10 STUDY GUIDE-REGULAR SECTION 1: MEIOSIS In your textbook, read about meiosis I and meiosis II. Label the diagrams below. Use these choices: |anaphase I |anaphase II |interphase |metaphase I |metaphase II | |prophase I |prophase II |telophase I |telophase II | | |1. prophase I |2. prophase II |3. telophase II |4. interphase |5. anaphase I | |6. telophase I |7. anaphase II |8. metaphase I |9. metaphase II | 10. Using the pictures & phases above, describe what is happening in each phase: a. Interphase: G1 – cell grows; S-DNA is duplicated; G2 – cells grows & makes sure all the organelles are duplicated. b. Prophase I: nuclear membrane breaks down; nucleolus disappears; centrioles begin to migrate to opposite sides of the cell; spindle fibers begin to form; homologous chromosomes form; crossing over occurs c. Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes are lined up down the middle of the cell d. Anaphase I: homologous chromosomes are pulled apart & sister chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of the cell, cell has gone from diploid to haploid e. Telophase I: nuclear membrane reforms, nucleolus reappears; spindle fibers disappear;...
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...hopped into the microscope while trying to escape—since a curly winged fruit fly cannot fly, but hop. The fruit fly experiments is used to help understand the basics of genetics. Mendelian genetics has allowed us to understand how the different traits are being passed down from the parent to the offspring (O’Neil). In the fruit fly experiment, scientist use fruit flies because they are easy to work with, and they share about 75% of the same genes that cause disease in humans (Service). Furthermore, scientist use the DNA of the flies to create different mutations—which are error or changes in the DNA (Stanford 76). The phenotypes—the visible traits—vary among the flies, depending on the recessive or dominant traits inherited or selected by the scientists. For example, in experiment one, the cross between curly (Cy,+) and wildtype (+,+) the results in the Punnett square show that a 50% of the flies are expected to have curly wings and the other 50% is expected to have normal wings. This is due to dominant curly gene. The curly gene is caused by a mutation that is dominant to the normal wing. Therefore, indicating that there is a co-dominance, and both traits are present, but only the dominant trait will be visible (O’Neil). Just like with the fruit flies, mutations can occur in the human genotype—the genetic makeup—and can affect the phenotype, or cause some form of disability. Mutations can be passed down from parent to offspring, or result by chance. So the fruit fly experiments...
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...What is genetic variation? Genetic variation is a term used to describe the variation in the DNA sequence in each of our genomes. Genetic variation is what makes us all unique, whether in terms of hair colour, skin colour or even the shape of our faces. * Individuals of a species have similar characteristics but they are rarely identical, the difference between them is called variation. * Genetic variation is a result of subtle differences in our DNA?. * Single nucleotide polymorphisms? (SNPs, pronounced ‘snips’) are the most common type of genetic variation amongst people. * Each single nucleotide polymorphism represents a difference in a single DNA base?, A, C, G or T, in a person’s DNA. On average they occur once in every 300 bases and are often found in the DNA between genes?. * Genetic variation results in different forms, or alleles?, of genes. For example, if we look at eye colour, people with blue eyes have one allele of the gene for eye colour, whereas people with brown eyes will have a different allele of the gene. * Eye colour, skin tone and face shape are all determined by our genes so any variation that occurs will be due to the genesinherited? from our parents. * In contrast, although weight is partly influenced by ourgenetics?, it is strongly influenced by our environment. For example, how much we eat and how often we exercise. * Genetic variation can also explain some differences in disease susceptibility and how people react...
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...Ch 5:Cancer types Carcinoma - epithelial tissue, - metastasize Leukemia - bone marrow stem cells that produce white blood cells Sarcoma - connective tissue, muscle, bone, cartilage Lymphoma - lymph tissue, Hodgkins Adenocarcinoma - glandular epithelia, liver, salivary, breast Cancer Is Uncontrolled Cell Division What Is Cancer? Cell division is the process through which a cell copies itself Cancer begins when the a cell divides although it should not Unregulated cell division leads to a tumor, a mass of cells with no apparent function in the body Benign tumors do not affect surrounding structures Malignant tumors invade surrounding structures and are cancerous Malignant tumors can break away and start new cancers elsewhere through the process of metastasis What Is Cancer? Cancer cells differ from normal cells: Divide when they should not Invade surrounding tissue Move to other locations in the body What Is Cancer? All tissues that undergo cell division, such as ovarian tissue, are susceptible to cancer Cancer Risk Factors Known risk factors are linked to particular cancers… Not all exposures to chemicals and radiation causes cancers Cell Division Overview Cell division produces new cells in order to: Heal wounds Replace damaged cells For growth Also for reproduction Cell Division Overview DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes which can carry hundreds of genes along their length The number of in each cell depends...
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...common ancestor; the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the flower—all related” (All About Science, 2011). Darwin’s theory is what drew Mendel to study genetics. So where Darwin believed that everything was related in some way through evolution, Mendel’s theories differed proving that genetics is the hereditary factor that links and evolved life. Mendel attempted to track specific genes instead of specific phenotypes. Mendel’s experiment basically fathered genetics. He knew nothing about DNA yet he was still able to show how traits are inherited. He obviously proved that traits come from alleles and that traits do not just mix and is then lost forever because some traits can be recovered. Mendel used the garden pea experiment to help describe how traits are inherited. “He made the fortuitous choice to study the pea, which is an organism that can be easily manipulated in breeding experiments” (Axia College, 2011). The pea has a short generation time so Mendel was able to study multiple pea plants at once. Their phenotypes are very distinct which is ultimately better because the experiment was basically to study specific phenotypes by color, growth, etc. One major concluding principle Mendel hypothesized from his works was hereditary characteristics. For example, a mother and father of a child will pass on genetic characteristics to their child. Mendel’s theory is that many hereditary genes otherwise known as alleles are passed on to give a child similar characteristics...
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...Clinical Connection 1.1 Exome Sequencing Saves a Boy’s Life Bioethics: Choices for the Future Genetic Testing and Privacy CHAPTER OVERVIEW Chapter 1 provides a glimpse of the basic concepts of genetics and genomics, and offers examples of DNA information impacting daily life. In this new era of genomics, individuals have access to their own genetic information, and health care providers are learning how to incorporate DNA data into diagnostic and therapeutic medicine. Bioethics deals with issues of privacy, discrimination, and justice that arise from use and misuse of genetic information. DNA, genes, chromosomes, and genomes are the levels of genetic information, and they impact biology at the cell, tissue, organ, individual, family, and population levels. Genes encode proteins, and the exome is the small part of the genome that does so. Most traits arise from interactions of genes and environmental factors. Genetic information is in health care to identify individuals, in investigating the environment, and in understanding evolution. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1.1 Introducing Genes and Genomes 1. Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with inherited traits and their variation, and how these traits are passed from one generation to the next (heredity). 2. With continuing analysis of human genome sequences, human genetics has grown from a largely academic science to touch many areas of medicine, with practical and societal implications...
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...A chromosome is a structure of DNA, protein, and RNA found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Gregor Mendel -An Austrian monk who gained posthumous fame as the founder of the new science of genetics. Genetics -The branch of biology that deals with heredity, especially the mechanisms of hereditary transmission and the variation of inherited characteristics among similar or related organisms. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that encodes the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and many viruses. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) Is a ubiquitous family of large biological molecules that perform multiple vital roles in the coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. Nucleotides -are organic molecules that serve as the monomers, or subunits, of acids like DNA and RNA. Mendel's research was with plants, the basic underlying principles of heredity that he discovered also apply to people and other animals because the mechanisms of heredity are essentially the same for all complex life forms. Heredity -is the passing of traits to offspring from its parents or ancestor. Through heredity, variations...
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