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Ближний Восток: система политического устройства как способ управления на Аравийском полуострове в VII-VIII веках

Зарождение устойчивой политической системы на аравийском полуострове и прилегающих к нему территориях связано с появлением халифата в середине 7 века.
Возникновение и становление арабской государственности тесно связано с зарождением и распространением Ислама ставшей стержневой основой политического, юридического, культурного и, в конечном счете, идеологического оформления существовавшей экономической модели общества.

Ислам утвердил идею государства как религиозной общины, члены которой одновременно и верующие, и граждане. Существовавший порядок стал рассматриваться как Богом установленный. Все законы государства, закреплявшие власть единоличного собственника-правителя были объявлены божественными, что привело к тому, что власть государственная и религиозная слились в одном лице.

Таким образом на рубеже 7-8 веков на аравийском полуострове сформировалось теократическое государственное образование в котором как светская так и духовная власть была сконцентрирована в руках Халифа, выступавшего в качестве заместителя пророка на земле.

Государство как способ организации и эффективного функционирования общества воспринималось с религиозной точки зрения не столько как возможность выстраивания взаимоотношений между правящей элитой и подчиненной им остальной части общества, а скорее как необходимый инструмент для реализации политических и социально-экономических идей Ислама.

Религия стала всепронизывающей идеологической системой, определявшей отношение человека к государству и обществу, политике и культуре, сознанию и норме.

Человек, являвшийся частью религиозной общины (уммы), получал все свои воззрения на мир и общественное устройство, систему правил поведения почти в готовом виде из религии. Содержание религиозных преданий не подвергалось даже обсуждению, а события, которые они передавали и трактовали, принимались как очевидно неоспоримые. Поэтому концепция политической легитимности основывалась на том, что у индивида нет естественных прав и обязанностей, вытекающих из отношений гражданского общества, а его действия регламентируются «политико-правовым кодексом» ислама.

Сращивание государства и ислама, выражавшееся в консолидации экономической, религиозной и государственной верхушек, определило структуру власти – слияние духовного и светского начал в личности духовного правителя - халифа.
Системой управления возникшего государства была унитарная система, не федерация.
Верховная власть, как было сказано выше была централизованной, административная – децентрализованной.
К верховной власти Халифата относились следующие четыре института: * Халиф * Назначаемые высшие чины администрации * Губернаторы провинций, являющиеся наместниками Халифа * Мэры
Все остальные чины администрации в государстве являлись служащими и не имели статуса правителей.

Несмотря на кажущийся абсолютизм верховной политический власти главы государства Халифат на первых порах своего существованиях имел ярко выраженные признаки демократии с ограниченным избирательным правом, которым наделялись свободные мужчины, не являющиеся рабами, и которые имели определенные заслуги перед общиной, которая и делегировала им полномочия по избранию правителя государства.
Правом всех остальных мусульман и их коллективной обязанностью было требование отчета правителей за свои действия и поступки. Также правом и обязанностью граждан государства было смещение правителя в случае несоответствия его действий и поступков целям государства и сложившейся религиозной доктрине определявшей как внутреннюю так и внешнюю политику Халифата.
Немусульмане же обладали правом подачи жалобы на несправедливость правителя и неправильное применение исламских законов по отношению к ним.

Система власти Халифата основывалась на четырех основных принципах: 1. господство является прерогативой шариата. То есть правитель государства несмотря на концентрацию в своих руках как духовной так и светской власти был ограничен в своих действиях рамками шариата, исламского богословского права. Высшей целью и предназначением Халифа на посту главы государства было применение на практике и претворение в жизнь норм исламского права, регулирующего практически все стороны жизнедеятельности как общества в целом, так и отдельно взятого индивида в частности.

2. власть народу (то есть мусульманской общине – умме). То есть право реализации господства шариата принадлежит мусульманской общине.
Осуществляется это право через следующий принцип:

3. Назначение Халифа является правом и обязанностью всех мусульман, которые реализуют данное право посредством делегирования своих полномочий наиболее достойным из них.

4. Халиф является верховным правителем, отвечающим за претворение в жизнь законов шариата.

Как было сказано выше, основной целью создания государства было претворение в жизнь предписаний ислама, регулирующих в частности социально-экономическую сферу жизнедеятельности исламской общины.

Основные принципы исламской социально-экономической доктрины сводятся к следующему:
1. регламентация в соответствии с нормами ислама экономической деятельности (например, шариатский запрет на риба – выплату и получение процентов);

2. признание в качестве основ экономики двух видов собственности – частной и общественной (на которые распространяется ряд ограничений);

3. принцип обеспечения социальной справедливости, который реализуется, в частности, посредством закята, который взымается с имущества богатых в пользу бедных

4. обеспечение справедливого распределения в обществе;

5. признание права государства вмешиваться в экономическую деятельность;

6. равное распределение риска между партнерами по экономической деятельности с помощью системы договоров (акд)

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