GENERALIZED TECHNICAL DATA PROCESSING: 1. Moore’s Law: Actual Meaning – April 1965 Gordon made an observation that approximately every 18-24 months twice as many semiconductors can be stored on a chip/ double storage capacity (NOT a LAW) 2. Moore’s Law: Generalized meanings – the speed of computers is set to double every two years 3. Central Processing Unit (CPU) and the three primary components thereof – the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control & input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. Runs programs. Three primary components are the: 1. Main Memory- (aka RAM/ physical storage) constructed from integrated circuits and needs to have electrical power in order to maintain its formation. When power is lost, so is the information. Made up electronic circuits > 2 state situation ON/OFF, High voltage/ low voltage, negatively charged/ positively charged. *PHYSICAL – reality *LOGICAL – a model; not the truth 2. Control Unit- extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them calling on the ALU when necessary 3. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) - performs arithmetic and logical operations 4. Von Neumann Architecture – computer architecture consisting of the 3 CPU components. (1945 mathematician & physicist) 5. Execution Cycles/ Instruction Cycles – how the control unit works. Measures the speed of the control unit. A process by which the computer retrieves a program instruction from its main memory, determines what actions the instruction requires, and carries out those actions through 3 steps 1. Fetch; 2. Decode; 3. Execute 6. Fetch, Decode, Execute: Know purpose of each step and order of the steps in the cycle. When a CPU executes the instructions in a program 1. Fetch- instruction fetched from physical RAM. This step reads the next instruction from memory into the CPU 2. Decode – decode instruction in order to figure out what to do. This step decodes the instruction that was just read from memory, to determine which operation it should perform 3. Execute- perform the operation 7. MIPS: (meaning and purpose) – Millions on instructions per second- measure of computers processor speed. There will always be more MIPS than MEGAFLOPS. Both measure how many instruction cycles the CPU can do in a second 8. MEGAFLOPS: meaning and purpose (and relationship to MIPS) measures mathematical instructions, trip to the ALU & back 9. Main Memory (purpose and various names of) – (AKA RAM, main memory, physical memory, primary memory, internal memory, core memory) where the computer stores a program while the program is running, as well as the data that the program is working with. Directly accessible to CPU. Directly indirectly connected to CPU, via memory BUS 10. ROM: read only memory; reserved area of very high speed memory that the system puts data in, you as a reader can’t input, but read-only; subset of memory system to put data in CPU, cannot access as users. Work area for the processing system. Cache: somewhat the same as ROM; reserved area of high speed memory that can bring things in from memory when needed (tool belt); small amount of fast memory in CPU that stores frequently used instructions. It is expensive and you get more RAM and memory to speed computer up. 11. Secondary/External/Peripheral Storage- I/O device. 3 names for anything outside of the CPU, including all disks of any kind. Any kind of storage that is outside of memory. Disk is not part of memory. 12. *Circuits- 2 values. High and low voltage, positive and negative charge. Main memory made up of circuits 13. Bits- every circuit is a bit, contains one position, stands for binary digits, has two values: 0 stands for OFF and 1 represents ON 14. Bytes- collection of bits; tiny storage locations in a computer. Each byte is usually divided in 8 smaller storage locations known as bits, but it doesn’t have to be 8. Largest value that can be stored in a byte is 255. 15. ASCII- American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A set of 128 numeric codes that represent the English letters, various punctuation marks, and other characters 16. EBCDIC- Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. 8 bit only. 17. UNICODE- an extensive encoding scheme that is compatible with ASCII, and can also represent the characters of many of the world’s languages. 16 bit byte, puts two 8 bit bytes together (more bits in a byte will be slower). 164536 takes up more space 18. Purpose of the use of the Binary Number system- Not true but logical – base 2 number system is a perfect overlay of the 1s and 0’s overlaying the actual reality of the bits & the circuits. Perfectly reflects what’s underneath. The reality. 19. Addition of Binary Numbers: 10110110 11111110 11110111 See quiz & booklet +01110101 01011101 10111111 100101011 101011011 110110110 20. Binary to/from Decimal conversions: See quiz and booklet. 21. Input-Output control systems, IOCS, BIOS, I-O Logic Modules/Drivers- IOCS is any several packages on early IBM entry level and mainframe computers that provide low level access to records on peripheral equipment. Drivers are kept in the BIOS. Basic unit of issue for storage, records. 22. Virtual Storage: purpose, pages, page pool, swapping of pages, thrashing: Does it speed up a program’s processing time? Simply to allow programs to too big from memory to run. Memory management technique implemented using hardware and software. Allows programs bigger than main memory to run. Extremely useful, slight slow. 23. Multiprogramming: Purpose – to reduce slow IO, IO bound that slows the CPU. Spooling frees the CPU, so it can get more done. 24. Partitions of memory: regions, purpose – break memory into subsections. You need partitions of memory to be able to multi-program. It breaks memory into smaller sections called partitions. You don’t need this for Virtual Storage. 25. Operating Systems (purposes and trade names) e.g., DOS, OS, VMS, UNIX, LINUX, SYSTEM-10, IOS, Chrome OS, Android, et al- where you write applications. It’s a program that controls computer resources. KNOW MAIN NAMES 26. Bus definition, where used, and capacities (8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 Bit) there can be a 512 bit. Electronic channel through which data is transferred within the CPU, data transferred through computer. Very fast. 27. Channels- the connections 28. Multiple CPUs/Control Unit: One per program- (1st way) one CPU for multi-programming; (2nd way) a CPU for each program that is running; 29. Multiple CPUs/Control Units per each program- (3rd way) multiple CPUs per program. 30. Parallel Processing- process is split into parts that execute simultaneously/ at same time on different processors attached to same computer. 31. DASD and Non-DASD Devices (purposes, limitations, and examples) - IO device in which I can do direct access. Just think of disk. Memory is direct access but it is not a DASD device. 32. Sequential and Direct Access Files- it can be either IO DASD device. 33. Which types of files can be stored on which types of storage devices- 34. Addressability of: DASD, NON-DASD, RAM – if it’s addressable it can be direct access. Are disks addressable yes, memory yes. Non-DASD not accessible 35. Address Pointers- the address of, if you follow it you will get there. 36. Flat Files- sequential not direct access 37. Spooling/Buffering- defeat slow IO, by taking the slower IO devices 38. Hierarchy of Data (Bits, Bytes, Fields, Records, Files): Know order! – Bits, bytes, fields, records, and files. 39. 1K, 2K, and 4K number of bytes- See booklet. K in computers means 1024, so the following applies: 1K = 1024; 2k = 2048; 4k = 4096. 40. Kilobyte, Megabyte, Gigabyte, Terabyte: Know specific values of each. Kilobyte= 1024; megabyte= 1million; gigabyte= 1billion; terabyte= 1trillion. 41. Microsecond, Nanosecond, Picosecond: Know specific values of each. Microsecond= 1 thousandth of a second; Nanosecond= 1 millionth of a second; Picosecond= 1 billionth of a second; 42. Logical View- logical is what makes sense, is not necessarily the truth, Physical View- the truth, physical view, physical description 43. I-O Bound- slows down too much more than it should, that is why we came up with spooling/ buffering, multiprogramming 44. How data is stored on Cards, Tapes, and Disks- cards holding the card not holding the card; tapes magnetized not magnetized; disks not magnetized or magnetized. 45. Data Values of Circuits and Magnetized Spots in Memory and on Tapes and Disks- are they 1’s and 0’s, logically yes, physically NO 46. Hardware and Software components: e.g., circuits, operating systems, compilers- circuits are hardware; OS and compilers are software; all programming language is a software 47. Hard disks, Floppy disks, Flash disks- 48. ALU – arithmetic and comparisons 49. Disk Tracks- on the surface of the disk; data is stored between the tracks; magnetized/ not magnetized; spins at a constant rate of speed (on average 3000 revolutions per second); on average the rotational delay is ½ of a spin or revolution 50. Shape of Disk Tracks- spin at a constant rate of speed; tracks on the surface, do not connect; 51. Read/Write Heads- do not touch/make contact the disk; read and write magnetic spots 52. Flying Height- extremely small measurement; less than the width of a human hair 53. Mechanical Arm Movement required for a disk- required for disks; the arm has to move in and out 54. Record I-D necessity in accessing certain kinds of records in files- you need to know the ID of the record that you are going to that will turn into the address 55. Location of RAM (memory)- not on a disk 56. Location of Program Execution – in memory; command brought in from memory/ RAM to be executed 57. Sequential files: on DASD and NON-DASD- BOTH 58. “Enterprise” Solutions, (vis a vis Departmental and Personal Solutions)- basically company wide 59. Disk Directory of Files- VTOC or directory - 60. Linked List Files- they do the same thing as Inverted List; allow a file that has organized direct access in a sequential manner; done one at a time in order; chasing chains 61. Inverted List/Index Files- better list- flat file or sequential file in the order that it wants it to by age, alpha 62. Base/Displacement Addressing- F237F034 63. General Registers- 16 per partition; can be used to store any data; 64. Use of General Register as Base Register- store the base address in a register; that is how programming can be ran in different partitions

DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (true/ false and different things) 1. Hierarchical DBMS- the old one the 1st thing; the best at pure raw speed; very fast; very unfriendly; 4k; sk2 2. Relational DBMS- its ok with updating; *it is really easy to use with SQL; best at laying data and locating data as long as there is a pointer for direct access 3. CODASYL Committee 4. What Hierarchical DBMS is best at- pure raw data (very fast) 5. What Relational DBMS is best at- ok with data updating 6. Various names for RDBMS “Tables”- see quiz 7. Various Names for Rows and Columns- see quiz 8. Base Entities- see quiz 9. Relationship Entities- 10. Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERDs): Peter Chen, and which entities are rectangles and which entities are diamonds 11. Normalization Purpose and Normal Forms 1 thru 3; B, C & F normalized through 3rd ; solve almost everything 12. What kind of storage devices can host and access Direct/Random Access files 13. Data redundancy- reduce data redundancy; it is additional data to the actual data; duplicate data 14. Reduction of data redundancy- pointer for when needed 15. Controlled redundancy

FIVE COMPONENTS OF A DBMS 1. DBMS Engine - the software the power to run the whole thing 2. Data Definition Subsystem (Data Dictionary, including “aliases”) - a subset of a database to make sure you define data in their way. Strings etc. 3. Data Manipulation Subsystem – how you make the system work 4. Application Generation Subsystem - 5. Data Administration Subsystem – security rules, standards to be followed, privacy issues, who makes the decisions

Exercise in Putting Key and Non-Key fields into Relations. See Quiz #2. If it’s a key field it’s in more than one column f it’s a non-key it is one only. The test will say it can be multiple.

Definition Matching (17)
***Entity/Relation/File
Intersection/Relationship Entity
Field/Attribute/Column
Purpose of Normalization- the process of organizing columns (attributes) and tables (relations) of a relational database to minimize data redundancy; reduces redundancy
E.F. Codd- computer scientist who worked for IBM and invented the relational model for database management
DB2- family if relational database; IBMs mainframe relational database; the main databases: SAP, oracle database, IBM DB2
ORACLE- relational database originally developed by L. Ellison most trusted and widely used.
SAP- (systems applications and programs) from Germany mostly oracle underneath; whole process that defines a complete method to be implemented
ACCESS- relational database contained in a single file that you can upload to a directory on your web server
IMS- hierarchical database where information is structured in records that are subdivided into hierarchy of related segments
Entity-Relationship Diagram(s): “ERDs” – who made them he major purpose- Peter Chen in 1976; a data model for describing data or information aspects of a business domain or process requirements that lends itself to ultimately being implemented in a database
UML: Unified Modeling Language- alternative planning technique for modeling data
Primary Key (Field(s)) - one or more fields; one key that uniquely identifies a row in in another table
Fully Functionally Dependent/A Fact About- the basis the definition that all non-key fields must be about;
Multivalued Attribute- have more than one value at a time for an attribute. For example one student with multiple skills
Data Model of an Organization- how to organize data using a database
Lost Data/Concurrency Issue- lost updates
Record Locking and Unlocking - record locking for reading or writing when you have multiusers
Anomaly – anything can go wrong; you want to reduce; if you have redundancies you have anomaly; arise from relations that are generated directly from the user views; three types update, deletion, and insertion.
SQL- structured query language designed for managing data held in a relational database system

PRINTERS INCLUDED: Typewriters, Line/Chain, Dot Matrix, Daisy Wheel, Laser, Ink Jet
Which kinds of printers are Impact and Non-Impact? Impact makes impact with paper like a typewriter. Non-impact makes no impact on paper like an ink-jet or laser printer.
Which kinds of printers are Letter Quality? • Not letter quality: line chain; dot matrix • Letter quality: typewriter; daisy wheel; ink jet; laser jet
Definition and purpose of QWERTY- letter lay-out on keyboard; not most efficient, but it’s what we are used to

PROGRAMMING:
Compilers and Interpreters- software
Source Code and Object/Executable Code-
Op Codes and Operands- are for variables to add fields
Partitions/Regions of Memory- necessary for multiprogramming nothing else

THINGS THAT ALLOW A COMPUTER TO RUN FASTER (10-15 examples): True/False
Memory- for faster get more memory
Number of bits in Bytes- the fewer the number of bits in a byte the faster it will run
Records- longer the record the slower it is
Disks- if they spin faster hey will speed up
Control Unit, especially the Instruction/Execution Cycle and MIPS/Megaflops- get more MIPS
Bus Architectures- bigger BUSs less lines; 64 or 16, 16 is faster (4xs faster);
Channel Architectures- faster channels; get things physically closer together that way it has less distance to travel.

NUMBER AND DATE STORAGE
Date Storage- YYYY; MM/DD/YY; YY/MM/DD; YY/DDD or pure integer as a number of day since a certain date
Number Storage-
Values and placement of the Sign in a number-
One number per byte (Character Format)
Two numbers per byte (Packed Decimal Format)
Number in n bytes (e.g. in 2 bytes) (Pure Binary Format)
Largest decimal number that can be store in two bytes (with and without the sign symbol) – without the sign symbol 16 bits= 32000 With is half of that