What is embalming?
References: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/embalming
References: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/embalming
Embalming is the preserving of a corpse from decay which was originally done with spices but now is usually done by arterial injection of preservative.
How were mummies embalmed?
References: http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/mummies/story/page2.html
References: http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/mummies/story/page2.html
The mummies body would be taken to the ‘ibu’ or the ‘place of purification’ this is then were the embalmers would wash the body with wine and rinse it with water. Next one of the embalmers would make a cut in the left side of the body to remove the internal organs (they are important to be removed as they are the first part of the body to decompose). The liver, lungs, stomach and intestines are washed and packed in natron to dry them out. The heart however is not taken out of the body. A long hook is used to smash the brain and then it is pulled out through the nose. The body is then covered and stuffed with natron to dry the body out. All of the fluids and rags from the embalming process will be saved and buried along with the body. Once forty days have passed the body is washed again with water and then it is covered with oils to help the skin stay elastic. The dehydrated organs are then wrapped in linen and returned to the body. The body is then filled with dry materials such as saw dust, leaves or linen so it looks lifelike. Finally the body is covered again in good smelling oils and it is now ready to be wrapped in linen.
What chemicals were used?
References: http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/mummies/story/page2.html
References: http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/mummies/story/page2.html
The chemical natron was used in the process of embalming mummies.

How is embalming done today?
References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embalming
References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embalming
Modern day embalming now consists of removing all the blood and gases from the body and then inserting disinfecting fluids. Small incisions are made in the carotid or femoral artery and also the jugular or the femoral vein then the disinfecting fluid is injected through the carotid or femoral artery and the blood is then drained from the jugular or femoral vein. Also if an autopsy is being performed then the vital organs are removed and placed in embalming fluids and replaced in the body normally surrounded but preservative powder.

Do we use the same chemicals today?
References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embalming
References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embalming
We don’t use natron today; we use embalming fluid which normally contains a mixture of formaldehyde, methanol and other solvents.
What are the different procedures used in embalming today?
Pre-embalming this is where all clothing, bandages or IV needles are removed and a strong disinfectant is sprayed to clean the skin, eyes and mouth. If the dead person is a man they will be shaved and also women and children will be too so if makeup is placed on them it looks better.
Feature Setting this is where great care is taken to close the eyes of the body it is done at this stage as the body has fully set. The mouth is closed; one of the ways of doing this is by tying the jaw together.
Arterial Embalming starts by injecting an embalming fluid into the arteries while the blood is drained from a vein near the heart. Two gallons or so need is usually a mixture of formaldehyde and water. Depending on the body depends on what chemical you get and how strong the concentration is this could be due to cancer, diabetes or the medication used before the patient died.
Cavity Embalming arterial fluids mainly treat the skin, muscles and organs not what is inside of them. The substances inside the organs starts to rot which leaves a horrible odour these bacteria can spread to other parts of the body. Cavity treatment starts by suctioning all the fluids out of the internal organs; this is done with a trocar. The embalmer will use this to puncture holes in the stomach, bladder etc. the gases and fluids are withdrawn with cavity fluid.
References: http://listverse.com/2007/11/08/the-5-stages-of-embalming/
References: http://listverse.com/2007/11/08/the-5-stages-of-embalming/
Post Embalming this is where the body and hair are washed to remove any blood or chemical and then the body is dried. All restorations are done now to make the body look the same way as it did when it was living. Makeup is applied to the face, neck and hands. The body is dresses in an outfit chosen by the family then the body is placed in the coffin where it is positioned this is when the family see the body and decide on any changes they want to be made.
What is a cation?
References: http://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-cations.htm
References: http://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-cations.htm
A cation is a positively charged ion, one that would be attracted to the cathode in electrolysis.

What is an anion?
An anion is a negatively charged ion, one that would be attracted to the anode in electrolysis.
How do we test for cations (flame test)?
The flame test is the normal test used to find out what cation a substance is. To conduct a flame test first you need to heat a nichrome wire over a Bunsen Burner then dip it in hydrochloric acid after this you dip it in the substance you are testing so there is a blob of it on the wire then place it into the flame it will glow a different colour depending on what it is the substance is.

References: http://scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/applied/testcations.html , http://www.compoundchem.com/2014/02/06/metal-ion-flame-test-colours-chart /
References: http://scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/applied/testcations.html , http://www.compoundchem.com/2014/02/06/metal-ion-flame-test-colours-chart /

How do we test for anions?
References: http://scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/applied/testanions.html
References: http://scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/applied/testanions.html
Anions are substances such a carbonates, sulphates and sulphides. To test for things such as calcium carbonate you must first: add a diluted acid to the sample you are testing. A gas will be given off which when tested should turn out to be carbon dioxide. To test for sulphate and sulphides, add barium chloride to the solution you are testing a ‘white precipitate’ will form. If you then ass hydrochloric acid then the sulphate will not dissolve however if the substance is a sulphide then it will dissolve. You can also do something called the halogen test, theses test for halogens or halide ions. Firstly you add silver nitrate to a solution. Then you add nitric acid also. If there is chloride, bromine or any iodide ions in the solution they will react with the silver to form a precipitate. If there is any chloride in the substance then the precipitate will be white, if there is any bromide then is will be yellow and if there is any iodide it will be yellow
Where else might we want to identify an unknown substance (forensics)?
We might want to test unknown substances found on crime scenes that could count as evidence. Such as if you see a powder on a crime scene next to a body which you believe could have led to the death of that person then you would want to identify that substance so you can ask for it to be look for in the autopsy.
Aim
The aim of these experiments was to find out what the unknown substance is in the Mummion Powder.

Risk Assessment.

Risk Assessment.

Hazardous material or procedure | Risk (What could go wrong?) | Control Measures(Safety Precautions) | Action –In case of accident | Remaining Risk(Low/Med/High) | Hydrochloric acid | It could be spilt and the acid is corrosive so it can cause burns and the vapour irritates the lungs. | • Use the lowest concentration possible.• Use the smallest volume possible.• Wear eye protection for all but the most-dilute solutions.• Wear protective gloves if anything more than tiny amounts of concentrated acid are handled | In the eye flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor.Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor.Spilt on the skin or clothing Remove contaminated clothing. Then drench the skin with plenty of water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor.Spilt on the floor, bench, etc. For release of gas, consider the need to evacuate the laboratory and open all windows. For large spills, and especially for (moderately) concentrated acid, cover with mineral absorbent (e.g., cat litter) and scoop into a bucket. Neutralise with sodium carbonate. Rinse with plenty of water. Wipe up small amounts with a damp cloth and rinse it well. | Low | Barium sulphate | It is moderately toxic therefore it can be harmful if it is ingested. | • Use the lowest concentration possible.• Use the smallest quantity possible.• Wear eye protection.• Wash hands after handling barium compounds. | Inhalation: Remove victim from area of exposure - avoid becoming a casualty. Remove contaminated clothing and loosen remaining clothing. Allow patient to assume most comfortable position and keep warm. Keep at rest until fully recovered. Seek medical advice if effects persist.Skin Contact: If skin contact occurs, remove contaminated clothing and wash skin with running water. If irritation occurs seek medical advice.Eye Contact: If in eyes, wash out immediately with water. In all cases of eye contamination it is a sensible precaution to seek medical advice.Ingestion: Rinse mouth with water. If swallowed, give a glass of water to drink. If vomiting occurs give further water. Seek medical advice. | Low | Nitric acid | It could be spilt and it is corrosive with can cause burns to skin, eyes and body tissues and if you get it in your eye it can cause permanent loss of vision. | Use the lowest concentration possible. Use the smallest possible volume. Wear eye protection. Use gloves if more than a small amount is being used. | Inhalation: Remove from source of exposure. If breathing stops or shows signs of failing apply artificial respiration. Use oxygen if breathing is laboured. Obtain medical help.Skin Contact: Remove contaminated clothing and flush affected area with water for at least 15 minutes. Treat patient as for inhalation. Obtain medical help.Eyes: Flood with eyewash or water for at least 15 minutes. Obtain medical help.Ingestion: Wash out mouth with water. Treat as for inhalation. Obtain medical help. | Low | Silver nitrate | It can cause burns and I dangerous to your eyes also if it is swallowed then it can cause internal damage as it absorbs into your blood and then the silver is deposited in various tissues. | • Use the lowest possible concentration; wear eye protection.• Avoid keeping solutions of silver compounds and ammonia for more than a few minutes.• Avoid handling solid silver nitrate. | In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor. Swallowed. Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor.Spilt on the skin or Clothing. Remove contaminated clothing and rinse it. Wash off the skin with plenty of water. If the silver nitrate produces more than small burns, see a doctor.Spilt on the floor, bench, etc. Wear eye protection and gloves. Scoop up the solid. Rinse the area with water and wipe up, rinsing repeatedly. Rinse the mop or cloth thoroughly. | Medium | Lime Water | Even a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide is so dilute that it is not classed as IRRITANT. However, limewater is usually made in schools by adding excess solid calcium hydroxide (or oxide) to water. Undissolved solid will remain and that is irritating to theeyes and skin (but any solid present might well be calcium carbonate, | • Wear eye protection when handling solids.• Eye protection is advisable when using limewater, especially if blowing into it. | In the eye Limewater is unlikely to cause serious problems; flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor if there are any concerns.• Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. Limewater is unlikely to cause serious problems. Wash out the mouth. See a doctor if there are any concerns.• Spilt on the skin or Clothing Brush off the solid. Remove contaminated clothing. Drench the skin with plenty of water.If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor. For limewater, wash with water.• Spilt on the floor, bench, etc. Wipe up limewater or small amounts of solid with a damp cloth and rinse it well.For larger amounts of solid, scoop into a bucket, add water to the area followed bymineral absorbent (e.g., cat litter). | Low | Calcium chloride | Calcium chloride is an irritant therefore if you spill it then it can be a risk if someone else is to touch it as they could have sensitive skin and it could irritate them however it isn’t a very high risk substance. Also it could cause people damage if the dust form it gets into their eyes. | • Wear eye protection when handling hazardous solids and solutions.• Avoid raising dust. | • In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor if pain persists.• Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor.• Spilt on the skin or clothing Brush solid off contaminated clothing. Rinse clothing or the skin as necessary.• Spilt on the floor, bench, etc. Brush up solid spills, trying to avoid raising dust, then wipe with a damp cloth. Wipe up solution spills with a cloth and rinse it well. | Low | Lithium chloride | Lithium chloride is highly flammable and is also corrosive so it can burn. Therefore it is very dangerous to you if it is spilt and also the people that are around you if they are not told if you spill it. Also with it being highly flammable it should be handled with extreme care if for whatever reason it may be around a flame. | • Store alkali metals under liquid paraffin. Check potassium samples regularly for signs of yellowing.• Handle sample using forceps, wear eye protection and use safety screens.• Conduct all investigations on a small scale - generally use a rice grain-sized piece.• Make sure everybody involved (e.g., technicians clearing away) understands the hazards.• Take steps to prevent theft. | • In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 20 minutes. See a doctor. If it is necessary to go to hospital, continue washing the eye during the journey in an ambulance.• Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor.• Spilt on the skin or clothing Remove any pieces of solid with forceps. Then drench the skin with plenty of water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor.• Metal catches fire For sodium and potassium; smother with dry sand, anhydrous sodium carbonate or mineral absorbent (e.g., cat litter). For lithium, smother with dry sodium chloride.• Spilt on the floor, bench, etc. Scoop up as much metal as possible into a dry container. Cover the area with dry sand oranhydrous sodium carbonate (or, for lithium, sodium chloride) and scoop into a dry bucket for further treatment. Rinse the area with plenty of water and mop. | Medium | Sodium chloride | Sodium chloride is highly flammable and is also corrosive so it can burn. Therefore it is very dangerous to you if it is spilt and also the people that are around you if they are not told if you spill it. Also with it being highly flammable it should be handled with extreme care if for whatever reason it may be around a flame. | • Store alkali metals under liquid paraffin. Check potassium samples regularly for signs of yellowing.• Handle sample using forceps, wear eye protection and use safety screens.• Conduct all investigations on a small scale - generally use a rice grain-sized piece.• Make sure everybody involved (e.g., technicians clearing away) understands the hazards.• Take steps to prevent theft. | • In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 20 minutes. See a doctor. If it is necessary to go to hospital, continue washing the eye during the journey in an ambulance.• Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor.• Spilt on the skin or clothing Remove any pieces of solid with forceps. Then drench the skin with plenty of water. If a large area is affected or blistering occurs, see a doctor.• Metal catches fire For sodium and potassium; smother with dry sand, anhydrous sodium carbonate or mineral absorbent (e.g., cat litter). For lithium, smother with dry sodium chloride.• Spilt on the floor, bench, etc. Scoop up as much metal as possible into a dry container. Cover the area with dry sand orAnhydrous sodium carbonate (or, for lithium, sodium chloride) and scoop into a dry bucket for further treatment. Rinse the area with plenty of water and mop. | Low | Strontium chloride | Strontium chloride is an irritant and therefore can cause damage to you if you get it on your skin but the risk that you will be caused any serious damage because of this chemical is very unlikely. | * Make sure that you wear eye protection. | • In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor if pain persists.• Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor.• Spilt on the skin or clothing Brush solid off contaminated clothing. Rinse clothing or the skin as necessary.• Spilt on the floor, bench, etc. Brush up solid spills, trying to avoid raising dust, then wipe with a damp cloth. Wipe up solution spills with a cloth and rinse it well. | Low | Copper chloride | Copper chloride is harmful if it is swallowed so people should be made aware of that and also to make sure that there is no chance of it being mistaken for something else like a drink, food and drink shouldn’t be allowed on the work surfaces. Also the dust from it can cause irritation to the lungs and eyes so people have to handle it carefully to try that the least dust is brought up but even better none. | • Use the lowest possible quantities and concentrations.• Avoid the use of copper (II) chloride if possible (except for electrolysis of the solution).• Avoid raising dust (e.g., by dampening powders).• Take care if evaporating solutions to dryness.• Wear eye protection. | • In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor.• Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor.• Dust breathed in Remove the casualty to fresh air. See a doctor if breathing is difficult.• Spilt on the skin or clothing Remove contaminated clothing and rinse it. Wash off the skin with plenty of water. • Spilt on the floor, bench, etc. Scoop up solid (take care not to raise dust). Wipe up small solution spills or any traces of Solid with cloth; for larger spills use mineral absorbent (e.g., cat litter). | Low | Barium chloride | Barium chloride is an irritant if it gets in your eyes or lungs and also your skin. Therefore you should handle it with care in case it is spilt and a dust is raised as then it can get into your lungs and could also get into your eyes. | • Use the lowest concentration possible.• Use the smallest quantity possible.• Wear eye protection.• Wash hands after handling barium compounds. | • In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for at least 10 minutes. See a doctor.• Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor.• Spilt on the skin or clothing Brush off any solid. Remove contaminated clothing. Drench the skin with plenty of water. If A large area is affected or blistering occurs see a doctor. Rinse contaminated clothing with water.• Spilt on the floor, bench, etc.Scoop up any solid. Rinse the area with water, diluting greatly. Solutions should be treated with mineral absorbent (e.g., cat litter). | Low | Potassium chloride | Is low hazards to people but you should still be careful if you get it in your eyes. | • Wear eye protection when handling hazardous solids and solutions.• Avoid raising dust. | • In the eye Flood the eye with gently-running tap water for 10 minutes. See a doctor if pain persists.• Swallowed Do no more than wash out the mouth with water. Do not induce vomiting. Sips of water may help cool the throat and help keep the airway open. See a doctor.• Spilt on the skin or clothing Brush solid off contaminated clothing. Rinse clothing or the skin as necessary. • Spilt on the floor, bench, etc. Brush up solid spills, trying to avoid raising dust, then wipe with a damp cloth. Wipe up solution spills with a cloth and rinse it well. | Low | Bunsen burner | Things could catch on fire e.g. hair or chemicals. | * Make sure that the yellow safety flame is on when you are not using the Bunsen. * Make sure that gas is turned off before you pack it away. * Make sure allow time for the Bunsen to cool down before you touch it or carry it by the base. | * Burns wash your hand under cold water and notify a teacher. | Low | Glass Ware | * Cuts from damaged or broken glass. * Cuts from flying glass due to implosion following evacuation or mechanical shock or stress. * Cuts from forcing plastic tubing, teats or rubber bungs onto glass tubing, pipettes or * Condensers that break. * Cuts from broken glass and sharp items e.g. Pasteur pipettes disposed in ordinary waste bins. * Burns from heated glass. * Poisoning following cuts by contaminated glassware. | * Before use, all glassware should be checked to ensure that it is free from cracks, flaws or scratches that may cause it to fail in use. * Glass should be transported carefully and never in pockets. * Glass must never be stored on the floor. | * If you get cut go and wash it and get someone to notify a teacher. * If glass ware if broken then notify a teacher to clean it up and warn people of that area till it is cleaned. | Low | Information copied from reliable sources: http://www.riskassessmentservices.co.uk/HazCom/Nitric%20Acid%20%3E70%2525.pdf, http://msds.orica.com/pdf/shess-en-cds-010-000030196401.pdf, http://www.cleapss.org.uk/attachments/article/0/SSSPrint.pdf?Free%20Publications/%20, http://www.chemie.uni-kl.de/fileadmin/chemie/Dokumente/Dokumente_BC/Sicherheit/GA/RAGlassware.pdf
Information copied from reliable sources: http://www.riskassessmentservices.co.uk/HazCom/Nitric%20Acid%20%3E70%2525.pdf, http://msds.orica.com/pdf/shess-en-cds-010-000030196401.pdf, http://www.cleapss.org.uk/attachments/article/0/SSSPrint.pdf?Free%20Publications/%20, http://www.chemie.uni-kl.de/fileadmin/chemie/Dokumente/Dokumente_BC/Sicherheit/GA/RAGlassware.pdf

Procedure
The Flame Test (method for testing cations).
Equipment:
* Nichrome wire. * Bunsen Burner * Hydrochloric Acid * Mummion Powder * Barium Chloride * Strontium Chloride * Calcium Chloride * Lithium Chloride * Potassium Chloride * Sodium Chloride * Goggles * Beaker (for Hydrochloric Acid).
Method
1. Firstly choice the substance you are going to use first. Make sure the Bunsen Burner is set up and on safety flame. Also that you have all the equipment ready. 2. Next clean the nichrome wire by dipping the loop in the beaker of hydrochloric acid and passing it through a blue flame, this should clean the wire. 3. Dip the nichrome wire into the hydrochloric acid again and then straight into the first solid you’ve chosen. 4. Then hold the wire in the Bunsen Burner flame (blue) and observe the colour that shows and make a note of it. 5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 again for that solid to make sure that the colour you are seeing is correct. 6. Repeat steps 2 to 6 again for each of the solids. 7. Record all your results in a results table.

Method for testing for anions
Prepare the Mummion Powder 1. Get a spatula of the Mummion Powder and place it into a beaker and add 20cm3 of distilled water and mix till the powder has dissolved. 2. Filter the solution (till clear as possible). 3. Divide the solution into three different test tubes. 4. Label the tubes 1, 2 and 3. 5. Place some lime water into 3 other test tubes.
Testing for Sulphate Anions
Equipment
* Dilute Hydrochloric Acid * Barium Chloride * Mummion Powder (prepared before) * Carbonate Sample * Sulphate Sample * Chloride Sample * Test Tube Rack * Goggles * Lab Coat * Pipettes.
Method
1. Firstly do a positive test (one that you know the expected outcome will happen). Take the Sulphate Sample and place it into a test tube. 2. Next add pipettes of dilute hydrochloric acid until the solution stops fizzing. 3. Add 1cm3 of barium chloride solution to the sulphate sample solution. 4. A white precipitate indicates that there are sulphate anions present. 5. Do a negative test (were the expected results won’t happen). 6. Take the Carbonate of Chloride Samples then repeat steps 2 to 4. 7. Next take the Mummion Powder in test tube 1 and then repeat steps 2 to 4. 8. Record result in the record table.
Testing for Chloride Anions
Equipment
* Nitric Acid * Silver Nitrate * Mummion Powder (prepared before) * Carbonate Sample * Sulphate Sample * Chloride Sample * Test Tube Rack * Goggles * Lab Coat * Pipettes.
Method
1. As before do a positive test with the Chloride Sample. 2. Place the sample into a test tube. 3. Add 1cm3 of silver nitrate solution into the test tube and also 1cm3 of nitric acid. A white precipitate should appear that means that Chloride Anions are present. 4. Do a negative test with the Carbonate or Sulphate Sample. 5. Repeat steps 2 to 3 with the second sample. 6. Test the Mummion Solution is test tube 2. Repeat steps 2 to 3. 7. Record results in the result table.

Testing for Carbonate Anions
Equipment
* Hydrochloric Acid * Lime Water * Mummion Powder (prepared before) * Carbonate Sample * Sulphate Sample * Chloride Sample * Test Tube Rack * Goggles * Lab Coat * Pipettes.

Method 1. First do a positive test (Carbonate Sample). 2. Place the sample into a test tube. 3. Add 1cm3 of hydrochloric acid to the sample. 4. If there is any bubbling, then pass the bubbles through into one of the test tubes which contain lime water. 5. A white or cloudy precipitate will indicate if there is any carbon dioxide present. Carbon Dioxide is given off by carbonate anions. 6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for a negative test (Chloride or Sulphate Sample). 7. Repeat steps 2 to 5 with the Mummion powder solution. 8. Record results in a results table.
Results
Flame Test Result Compound | | Flame Colour 1 | Flame Colour 2 | Flame Colour 3 | Decided Final Colour | Barium Chloride | | Green | Green | Green | Green | Strontium Chloride | | Red | Red | Red | Red | Calcium Chloride | | Dark Orange | Dark Orange | Dark Orange | Dark Orange | Lithium Chloride | | Red | Red | Red | Red | Potassium Chloride | | Purple | Purple | Purple | Purple | Sodium Chloride | | Yellow | Yellow | Yellow | Yellow |

Mummion: Flame Test Result Flame Colour | | Cation | Yellow | | Calcium |

Carbonate Test Result (Na2CO3 + 2HCl = 2NaCl + H2O + CO2) Name of Chemical Testing | Observation | Positive or Negative Test | | What does the observation show? | Na2CO3 | Fizzed | Positive | | There were carbonates anions present in this sample. | Na2SO4 | Cloudy | Negative | | There weren’t any carbonate anions present in this sample. | NaCl | Nothing | Negative | | There weren’t any carbonate anions present in this sample. | Mummion | Fizzing | Positive | | There were carbonate anions present in this sample. |

Sulphate Test Result (Na2SO4 + BaCl2 = 2NaCl + BaSO4) Name of Chemical Testing | Observation | Positive or Negative Test | | What does the observation show? | Na2CO3 | Cloudy | Negative | | There weren’t any sulphate anions present in this sample. | Na2SO4 | White Precipitate | Positive | | There were sulphates anions present in this sample. | NaCl | Cloudy | Negative | | There weren’t any sulphate anions present in this sample. | Mummion | Cloudy | Negative | | There weren’t any sulphate anions present in this sample. |

Chloride Test Result (NaCl + AgNO3 = NaNO3 + AgCl) Name of Chemical Testing | Observation | Positive or Negative Test | | What does the observation show? | Na2CO3 | Cream in colour | Negative | | There weren’t any chloride anions present in this sample. | Na2SO4 | No Change | Negative | | There weren’t any chloride anions present in this sample. | NaCl | White Precipitate | Positive | | There were chloride anions present in this sample. | Mummion | White Precipitate | Positive | | There were chloride anions present in this sample. |

Analysis of Results
Looking at the results tables from my experiments I have determined that the cation that is present in the Mummion Powder is Calcium. I came to this conclusion by looking through all the positive tests we did on the compounds and then looking at the colour I go for the Mummion Powder and picking the nearest match of colour. Then looking at the anion tests we did I came to the conclusion that the anion present in the Mummion Powder well there wasn’t one there were two as the test for Chloride anions and also Carbonate anions were present in the Mummion Powder.
Therefore I determined that the Mummion Powder is Calcium Carbonate.
Evaluation
None of the experiments were completely accurate and there were a lot of things we could have done to try and make them more accurate. As we could have had a colour chart for the flame test to match the flame colour to a compound as some were hard to distinguish. Also we used the same nichrome rod but cleaned it for each compound and if the rod was not cleaned properly the colour was distorted as you still had some of the other compound of the rod which contaminated the colour you saw so I think if we had used a different rod for each compound this might also have helped. Also in the anion test the amount of the acids or solution we put in weren’t always the same there could have been an effect on the results because of this.
In the experiments we couldn’t make the bubbles that were created in the Carbonate test pass through the limewater but it was still obvious that they would have if there was fizzing yet that was a fault in our experiment and something that needs to be resolved. Also when we were doing the anions experiments we got two positive results when we were only supposed to get one this is because the Mummion Powder that was made was a mix that contained two different anions when we only expected one.
There was a risk of contamination with the nichrome rods like I said before. But also with the nichrome rods if they weren’t cleaned properly form groups that have dipped the rod in the compound with a different compound already on the rod due to poor cleaning then the compound could be contaminated leading to wrong results. Also if the other groups had used too much of the compound and it dropped off into the flame then the flame could be contaminated. This could have mad the actual colour you were supposed to get hard to see when burning the compound. However in the anion test I think there was much less chance of contamination because all the chemicals never came into contact when they weren’t been used to make then contaminated and instead of washing the test tube after each test you were to get new ones to avoid any of the chemicals been left on the test tube due to poor cleaning.
In the flame test the colours were hard to see and distinguish like the calcium and sodium the colours were quite similar so when testing the Mummion powder after all the other chemicals it was hard to remember the colours exactly of the compound to make sure that you had chosen the right compound. To make the colour easier to spot we could have had a colour chart of the compound reacting with a flame and then we would be able to match the Mummion powder easier to the correct compound.
The results I got did not exactly match the expectation of what I thought I would get because I thought we were only going to find one cation and one anion but we ended up getting two positive results in the anion tests. To find out what cation was present in the Mummion powder I wouldn’t say it was hard to find you just had to do the test a few times to make sure that you were seeing the correct colour and could determine the correct colour however if you were finding it hard and couldn’t tell the difference between the Mummion powder and a compound then you could have just tested the compound again to see that colour first hand and retest the Mummion powder straight after to see if there was a lot of difference. Also if you wanted to make the results even more accurate you could have used a piece of equipment called a Spectrometer. A spectrometer is a piece of equipment that measures the light across the spectrum. It works by measuring the specific parts of the spectrum that are bright or dim and analysing the light coming off. How to use it in the experiment when the compound if heated up and the colour comes off the compound gives off spectra these have bright lights located in places within them. There are different spectral lines that are associated with hydrogen, carbon and helium etc. a spectrometer can also be used to see what elements are present in a star.
The anion tests gave clear results but you had to wait a little longer for the result to make sure that nothing was happening and you weren’t missing something by writing the result down too quick before all the reaction had actually taken place. Like in some of the tests that you did you knew there had to be a white precipitate to know that the anion was present but it took a little while to make sure that the precipitate wasn’t there because some of the solutions went cloudy and you wanted to make sure that a precipitate wouldn’t form. All the results we ended up getting I thought were right but we f=didn’t expect to get a second positive test for another anion being present.
To make the experiments more accurate all of the tests could have been repeated two to three times to make sure that what you were seeing was right and that we you were say seeing a colour that there weren’t any colours that you were missing or not seeing.
I don’t think that there were any other tests we could have done to test for cations and anions as when I researched these were the only tests that came up as good reliable tests. I feel that although there were two anions present in the Mummion powder I do think that my results were rather accurate as we tried to keep them that way. By trying the avoid contamination and checking that our methods were correct and if we were unsure on what we were seeing like in the flame test we asked someone else to look at the colour we were getting like the teacher to make sure that we were seeing the right thing and actually what colour was it. Also once we had gone back over or results and saw that we had two positive reactions in the anion test we questioned this to make sure that this was correct or to see if we were to redo the practical experiments to check out findings.