Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal
Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2 – training methods compared with learning styles
Henry C. Wilson

Article information:
To cite this document:
Henry C. Wilson, (2000),"Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2 – training methods compared with learning styles", Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, Vol. 9 Iss 3 pp. 180 - 199
Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09653560010335112 Downloaded on: 09 December 2015, At: 11:19 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 15 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 1307 times since 2006*
Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
Henry C. Wilson, (2000),"Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part I – training and learning styles",
Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, Vol. 9 Iss 2 pp. 105-116
Piyali Ghosh, Rachita Satyawadi, Jagdamba Prasad Joshi, Rashmi Ranjan, Priya Singh, (2012),"Towards more effective training programmes: a study of trainer attributes", Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 44 Iss 4 pp. 194-202 http:// dx.doi.org/10.1108/00197851211231469 Charles W. Read, Brian H. Kleiner, (1996),"Which training methods are effective?", Management Development Review, Vol.
9 Iss 2 pp. 24-29 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09622519610111781

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:563365 []

For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.

About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication
Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2 ± training methods compared with learning styles Henry C. Wilson

There are numerous methods of training and teaching and it is up to the trainer to choose a method that is suitable for the participants.
Each training method can be classified by the learning style that it addresses and this can be matched to the individual or group to maximise the training efficiency. Training is expensive both in resources and personal time and a methodology is presented which allows trainers to adopt a training method which is matched to the organisational and participants' needs.

Large group training methods

The author
Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

Introduction

1. Lecture
A lecture can be defined as a:

Henry C. Wilson is a Lecturer in the Department of
Industrial Technology, University of Bradford, Bradford,
UK.

structured planned talk usually making use of visual aids, and/or without group participation other than through questions at the conclusion
(Osborne, 1996, p. 166).

Keywords
Learning styles, Training, Emergency services
Abstract
Continues from Part 1 and investigates how the learning styles and training methods for individuals and groups can be matched to maximise the efficiency of the training programme. In a similar manner to identifying personal learning styles, training methods can be classified by their efficiency with the different learning-style groups. The training methods are divided into large and small group activities together with individual training processes. The learning styles of participants are then matched to the training styles.
Electronic access
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emerald-library.com The lecture is an economic means of transmitting factual information to a large audience, although there is no guarantee that effective learning will result. Bullock (cited in
Eitington, 1989) states that:
The lecture is the most convenient and costeffective means to disseminate material
(Eitington, 1989, p. 298).

There are many assumptions that the lecturer relies on:
.
that participants are motivated to learn; that the lecturer and participants are on the same wavelength;
.
that the lecturer can engage the attention of the majority of the participants;
.
that the social dimension of training can be ignored; and
.
that the participants can research any additional information required for their work. These assumptions are open to doubt.
Lectures can provide a background of ideas and theories, which can be developed and considered in detail subsequently, either by private study, or in seminar groups.
The lecture is a traditional method of teaching and is the most widely used of all methods, despite its limitations. However, there is little or no opportunity to clarify

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . pp. 180±199
# MCB University Press . ISSN 0965-3562

Grateful thanks are expressed to Ms Helen
Millington for her valuable assistance in the compilation of the data contained in this paper.

180

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

Henry C. Wilson

meanings, to check understanding or to handle different levels of ability. With little or no audience participation, it is difficult for individuals to maintain concentration.
Experimentation has shown that the maximum concentration span of trainees is about 20 minutes during a lecture. A lecture that is well prepared and supported by audiovisual material with an enthusiastic lecturer motivates participants far more and can be successful. Generally, retention of information is poor; tests on recall immediately after lectures show that participants may retain less than 40 per cent of content, falling to 20 per cent one week later. Thomas (1972) shows that there is a decline in retention rates in the middle of an hour-long lecture, which is especially obvious after about 45 minutes (Figure 1).
The principles of learning theory suggest that the best way to present a lecture is to convert it into a step-by-step presentation with about six intervals of summarisation and informal testing of the participants' learning.
Advantages
The lecturer is in full control of the material.
.
Suitable for large audiences where participation is not required.
.
The lecturer is in full control of the time.
.
Material is covered in a logical order.
.
Content and timing can be planned in detail in advance.
.
It is unusual for a lecture to go wrong, or not as planned.
.
Another person can give the same lecture using the appropriate notes if the lecturer is absent.

.
.

.
.

.

.

.

.

The notion of skill transfer raises questions about the relationship between learning as it occurs in the lecture theatre and laboratory, and learning as it is applied in the contexts of workplace and community; about the relationship between theory and practice, and about the processes which occur when existing skills, knowledge and understanding are adopted and manipulated to meet the demands of different situations (Brennan and Little, 1996, p. 40).

.

Disadvantages
Ineffective presentation.
.
Repetition of the same material for the lecturer. .

Figure 1 Participant retention rates

Passive audience.
Lack of feedback makes it difficult to assess what has been communicated.
There is a low retention rate.
Loss of motivation, curiosity and creativity. A lively presentation style is required, with regular changes of pace and media for successful delivery.
The lecture may be poorly planned and delivered. It is not possible to clarify any uncertain points. There is also the question of whether successful skill transfer occurs from lectures. Harrison (cited in Brennan and
Little, 1996) states that:

Electronic-based learning
2. Teaching machines/programmed learning/programmed textbook
Individuals use a training machine while a trainer is at hand. Teaching machines work on the principle of self-reinforced learning.
The method is suited mainly to factual information. The subject is presented in steps, each of which poses a problem or gives one unit of information. Each step requires a response, usually either to answer a question or complete a statement based on the information given. More advanced programs have steps which contain more information and are usually followed by a multiple-choice question. If the answer is correct then the machine moves on to the next step; if the answer is incorrect the trainee is moved to a part of the program designed to remedy the error. Individuals are encouraged to give all their attention to the program; the challenge and immediate feedback of results helps to maintain motivation. This method is designed for self-learning and is used to learn facts, principles and ideas. The immediate feedback that is given aids learning. Programmed instruction is designed so that maximum

181

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson

reinforcement follows by successfully controlling the environment. A programmed textbook is basically a compact, portable version of a programmed instruction teaching machine. According to Walkin (1982,
p. 232), ``The method ensures a high probability of successful learning''.
Comparison between participant achievement in programmed instruction and more traditional methods, for example a lecture, has shown no significant difference between the methods. At present:

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

The most valid conclusion is that programmed instruction results in faster learning but is not discernibly superior to traditional techniques in the establishment of higher achievement levels
(Goldstein, 1974, p. 155).

Advantages
.
If designed properly, programmed instruction is an effective training program, using built-in steps to ensure that the trainee understands the information.
.
There is enough evidence to prove that the training time is effectively reduced using programmed instruction, but not much to indicate that trainees actually learn more.
.
Programmed instruction applications are easily packaged and delivered.
.
It is suited to individual study where selfpacing allows learners to proceed at a rate suitable to their abilities.
.
Many believe that the reinforcement learning leads to a more highly motivated learner. .
Provides uniformity of training; usually it is difficult for trainers to maintain this consistency in a teaching programme.
Limitations
Expensive to prepare and evaluate.
.
Although the variety of programs is increasing, most programmed instruction material is factual rather than subjective.
.
Several studies show that the method alone may not be as effective as when it is combined with another technique.
Extensive research has shown that the learner is more satisfied with the combined technique (for example, combined with discussion) (Goldstein,
1974, pp. 155-6).
.

3. Computer-based teaching (CBT)
There are many different ways in which a computer can assist in improving the learning

achievement of a participant and assist the trainer: . administration; . assessment; .
CAT (computer-aided teaching);
.
CAL (computer-aided learning);
.
simulation; and
.
experiments.
Computer-based teaching (CBT) incorporates both CAT and CAL. These are both designed to improve participant learning; however, they must be incorporated with teaching strategies.
The method is beneficial as the participants work at their own pace. CAL programmes are high-quality, sophisticated, user-friendly and interactive. CAT programmes are built into a teaching scheme; they can be used for experiments and investigations, and can extend or reinforce teaching. CAL can be a form of instant assessment by using multiple choice questions. A large number of studies indicate that CBT requires less time than more traditional methods to teach the same amount of material. Studies on participant performance after CBT have found mixed results.
Advantages
Individualisation of instruction. Although programmed instruction adapts to the basic characteristics of an individual,
CBT has the potential to respond to detailed characteristics and needs of the trainee. .
The reinforcements in CBT are a great benefit to the learner.
.
More time is available for the trainer ± the computer evaluates the performance of the participant allowing the trainer to devote time to the development of other material. .

Limitations
.
The large costs lead many researchers to state that CBT is not cost effective for small group learning.
.
Several studies suggest that adult learners do not prefer to be taught exclusively by machine and participants also feel the need for short sessions with discussion and interaction with the trainer.

Reference methods
4. Workbook
A printed and bound publication, or set of publications drawn up by a course/module

182

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

Henry C. Wilson

tutor or team, designed to support the teaching and learning on that course or module. There are many advantages of using workbooks. They can:
.
replace note-taking in lectures;
.
give participants/trainees a common set of information; . structure and guide practical work;
.
allow participants to work at their own pace; . fill in gaps in background knowledge;
.
provide participants/trainees with feedback on their own learning through checks and tests in the workbook;
.
structure the whole course;
.
develop skills in learning independently and using resources; and
.
create time for trainers/lecturers to use varied training methods such as role-play and discussion (Adams et al., 1988, pp. 4-5).
5. Study guide
Help an individual to revise topics or information. These can be specially constructed for the course/topic or be a recommended general study guide.
6. Training manual
Reference material that is relevant to the topic being studied. Training manuals may include summaries, self-assessment questions or progress tests.
7. Algorithms
These are a set of instructions designed for solving problems in a finite number of steps.
The information is presented in simple steps in a logical tree or flow chart. Algorithms are good aids to problem solving; they are laid out so that the user knows exactly what is to be done in order to solve a problem as quickly as possible. They usually only have one starting point, although they may have many finishing points depending on the number of solutions to the problem. The decision-making process is reduced to a ``yes'' or ``no'' response. An algorithm should be laid out as simply as possible so the user is in no doubt what to do next. They are ideal in practical situations as they provide quick understanding, although algorithms can also be used for mathematical problems. In designing an algorithm, a person is made to think about all the options available in a structured way.

Example methods
8. Examples
Suitable examples can be used to illustrate a situation or point that is difficult to explain adequately by means of speech alone.
Examples can take the form of sketches, diagrams, models, pictures, analogies and anecdotes. 9. Demonstration
Practical display or exhibition of a process shows clearly the fundamental principles or actions involved. Demonstrations can be used to illustrate a process or method, or used to teach others how to do something. They are useful for teaching manual skills.
Demonstrations can also be used to heighten or intensify an experience. Some objects can produce a great impact on participant learning and retention. For example, to show the value of wearing a hard hat, a brick or heavy work tool is dropped onto a watermelon so participants can see the resulting mess. This is then repeated, but with the melon wearing a hard hat.
10. Three-dimensional models/exhibits
Illustrate information either by viewing the actual item being discussed, or by using a scale model of something that would otherwise be very difficult to observe. Models are useful in cases where three-dimensional representation is necessary or where movement has to be demonstrated.
11. Case example
A trainer/lecturer describes situations that have actually taken place to illustrate how principles and ideas can be applied.

Small group training (fewer than 12 people) There are many different ways of dividing people into groups. Unfortunately, the most common way is to split the main group according to where people are sitting. This will often result in groups of friends being together and usually means that their work is not as effective and the learning of new ideas from less familiar people will not occur.
To create more mixed groups, a numbering system could be used whereby each person is allocated a number. Groups are then formed

183

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson

by reading out different sets of numbers. The decision is then whether to change the groups after each activity. There are advantages and disadvantages of doing this. If groups stay the same, then they may develop a high level of awareness, understanding and effectiveness and become an integrated team, or they may fail to do this and achieve and learn very little.
If groups are changed, the individuals are exposed to a variety of people, ideas and skills; also incompatible individuals would not have to remain together. However, there would be no team development or individual awareness. Eitington states that:

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

It is better to frequently change the membership in the small group (Eitington, 1989, p. 14).

He believes that changing group members after each activity energises people so that they don't get too comfortable with the familiar, and new faces, personalities, views and abilities are provided. It also means that an ineffective group will be changed after a short period.
If the training group consists of participants from the same organisation, separating people from the same department/branch/region can make the groups more varied and interesting.
A more advanced approach would be to use behavioural information gathered from questionnaires and mix people according to their learning styles or personalities.
Rae (1983, p. 69) states that:
In my own training approaches I have tried most methods of mixing, but have come to the conclusion that for certain forms of training the numerical choice approach is as good as any other. Dyads and triads are included in the small groups' category. Dyads provide intimacy and therefore instant interaction. Triads have the advantage of offering multiple views on the problem or activity being discussed.
There are many advantages of using small groups for training, but there are also some disadvantages of working with large groups.
Advantages
.
Everyone is involved.
.
Low-risk, no threats as participants are with their peers.
.
Participants can learn from their peers and check the validity of their ideas.
.
Flexible, groups may be changed.
.
Can assign groups according to interest, background or experience.
.
Different views are shared.

.

Participants become acquainted with each other (this depends on the length of time spent in the groups).

Disadvantages
Encourages passivity.
.
Difficult to develop trust, rapport and intimacy which are all important to learning. .
Participants are out of touch with the trainer. .
It may be difficult to see the board/flip chart. .
Trainer may lose control.
.

12. Discussion groups
The full group is divided up to form small discussion groups. This gives everyone an opportunity to actively participate. Groups could all discuss a particular subject, or each talk about a different subject. It is useful to use a controversial topic. The groups could also discuss work to be prepared or work that has been completed.
13. Team building
Team building is essential if an effective work group functioning is required. To be successful it must have the full support and backing of the team leader. Data first need to be collected to establish how the team is functioning before training. These data can be gathered using interviews and questionnaires at a location away from the job. The training can take two or three days; activities at the beginning generate trust, openness and rapport amongst the team. As the training develops, methods that look at how the team is functioning are used. Training methods used include small group exercises, fishbowls, brainstorming and instrumentation. Action plans may be developed at the end to ensure that the learning achieved is continued when the team goes back to work.
14. Demand tasks
Teams perform a task, which makes increasing demands on them. Teams often start with an individual approach, then move to a ``divisionof-labour'' approach. As increasingly high production requirements are made, less conventional methods tend to be adopted.
15. Programmed group exercises
An integrated set of management training exercises that incorporates many of the

184

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson

19. Case study (three to six people)
A case study uses problem solving or investigative techniques to analyse a real or fictional situation. The purpose of a case study is to get the participants to think and co-operate: Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

elements of case study, role-play, programmed instruction and sensitivity training. Trainees are given about ten integrated experiences, each of which is a simulation. Afterwards, the trainee is given time to reflect on his/her responses both by him/herself and with the group.
16. Brainstorming (about four people)
Groups create new ideas or attempt to answer a problem, usually using a large sheet of paper and a marker pen, or a blackboard/ whiteboard. All ideas or solutions should be noted whether they are good or bad. Group members learn to think differently and have increased confidence in generating ideas. This activity helps to generate creative ideas under the more informal conditions.
17. Team member teaching
Participants each prepare a section of work to teach to other group members. In theory, by the end of the session the group should know a complete subject. The teams can be assessed on how much they have learned; scores of groups and individuals can then be compared. This can aid confidence and social skills and the competitiveness can motivate team members. The presentation and reading skills of the participant are critical. The disadvantage is that absence or poor preparation could jeopardise team results.
Also the subject must be suitable for segmentation. 18. Seminar
The purpose of seminars is:
To provide participants with opportunities to exchange ideas and recollections of experiences.
Through this exchange they stimulate each other's thinking, broaden their outlook and also gain experience in the kinds of give and take that commonly occur in meetings of many kinds
(Lynton and Pareek, 1967, p. 135).

Groups of between 8 and 12 members prepare a paper or presentation and discuss a particular subject. In some cases the individuals may take turns in preparing the material for the seminar. Questions are asked and observations made. A group leader introduces or leads the discussion. A seminar requires participation from all members of the group. Seminars are low cost and designed to inform participants about certain topics, developments or thoughts.

Case study is based on the belief that managerial understanding and competence can be best attained through the study, contemplation and discussion of concrete cases-rather than through other common methods of training (Bass and
Vaughan, 1966, p. 99).

Individuals involved in a case study are encouraged to develop flexibility in approach to organised problems. There is no ``right'' answer; there are usually many different interpretations of issues. A case study can be used for almost any type of problem and they can contain varying amounts of detail, ranging from a paragraph statement to a
50-page detailed history.
A case study stimulates thinking processes, creates awareness and interest and enables skills, knowledge and attitudes to be passed on. Feedback should be given where groups evaluate and reinforce conclusions.
Success depends on adequate group discussion. Case studies can be presented in many different forms: written (memos, letters, editorials; dialogues, monologues, judicial cases); spoken; CCTV; film; role-play.
Personal cases or incidents on a particular topic can also be given from individuals.
These formats can present the problem with more realism than a basic written case can.
Also, they can simplify events and ideas.
Reading time is not necessary so work can begin quicker. These methods can be combined, for example, written material for the background of the case and an audio cassette for the dialogue. Case studies help individuals understand situations and relationships; they form the basis for discussion. A case study is not as involving as newer methods such as exercises and games:
One can safely say that it is a useful training method, a participative method, but hardly the most exciting and profound training method available today (Eitington, 1989, pp. 272-3).

However, they can be coupled with methods such as fishbowls, brainstorming or worksheets to make them more interesting and involving.

185

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

Advantages
.
It is an active rather than a passive activity that arouses interest.
.
Many of the situations have actually occurred making the method realistic.
.
Opportunities for analysis and individual or group discussion.
.
Independent views and judgements can be formed; participants see that there are different ways of looking at situations and various solutions to the same problem.
.
Experience and understanding are gained. .
Communication skills are used.
.
Reduction of fixed attitudes.
Disadvantages
.
The more confident team members may take over the discussion.
.
A skilled trainer is required to stimulate discussion and ask questions.
.
Participants don't actually experience the situation. .
May not be adaptable for all training topics or participants.
.
The full complexity of the situation may not be apparent (from the Management
Development Casebook, prepared by the
Veterans Administration, cited in
Eitington, 1989, pp. 271-2).
.
May be difficult in a large group situation.
.
May over-simplify a situation.
20. Critical incident process
Incidents based on a person's own experience are identified, analysed and discussed by group members. Role-play and problem solving methods may be used. The group members describe possible responses; the person whose experience it was might then compare their actual response with what they could have done.
21. Incident process case study
This is a very successful training method that revolves around a story, known as the
``incident''. The story only gives part of the information that has to be discovered by the trainees. The trainer has the complete story.
The trainees are allowed to ask one question at a time in strict rotation. They do not have to ask a question. This questioning continues for a period of time allowing the trainees to gradually build up a complete picture. The trainer then moves on to the decision-making period. The trainees are asked to write down,

with reasons, what their decision is or what action they would take in the circumstances described. Syndicates are then made up of people who share a similar view. Each syndicate comes up with an agreed final conclusion; a group discussion follows. The trainer summarises all the comments and shows the strengths and weaknesses of each syndicate's conclusions. The incident process method stimulates interest and generates lively discussion. It is an effective training technique because it gives trainees the opportunity to ask questions, formulate opinions from facts, solve problems and make decisions. This method focuses on a problem definition and aims to promote analytical thinking and reasoned judgement. It examines the causes of problems and situations and promotes problem prevention.
Learners are made aware of the many points of view that can be generated.
22. Action maze
An action maze is a highly structured group activity. It is a form of case study, but more complex. A description of an incident or problem, technical or interpersonal, is given for analysis, which is followed by a list of different actions that could be taken. The action maze is usually in the form of a book; each option will lead the trainee to a different part of the ``maze'' which gives them more information to indicate whether they are on the right path. Another method involves the groups coming up with a decision and telling the trainer, who then gives them the next part explaining the consequences of the decision they made. The learning comes from problem solving and comparing the decisions made with the preferred solution, through group discussion and from feedback from the trainer. An action maze is suitable for training procedures and methods and could be linked with role-plays or case studies. It is very lively and usually involves debate amongst participants. A drawback with action mazes is that they can take a long time to prepare because of difficulties of developing wellthought-out sets of decisions for each step of the maze.
23. Buzz groups (2 to 12 people)
Groups talk together for a few minutes at intervals usually during a lecture, framing, posing or answering a question without the assistance of a trainer. This method hopes to

186

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

improve individual understanding by comparison of thoughts and interpretation of information. Feedback is then given in the form of ideas and options. Buzz groups create interest and involvement
24. Syndicates/projects (three to eight people) Study as a group of actual or simulated tasks.
Groups share an assignment and prepare a report to be presented to the full house.
Participants should be able to make use of a library and other sources of information.
Syndicates promote learning through intragroup and inter-group analysis and discussion. Members of the groups learn useful study and research habits. This method is beneficial because people learn from each other. Discussion gives the trainees practice in presenting their views orally to the group and also in putting their opinion in writing.
Problems may occur if some group members do more work than others, or if someone is absent at the time of the presentation. There are several different types of syndicate, including people who:
.
have a variety of experiences;
.
are from various different functions; or
.
are specialists of one type (Dickinson,
1973, p. 193).
25. Action learning (four to six people)
This method is based on learning by doing, rather than learning by teaching. It is actionbased and focuses on achieving immediate results: Groups of individuals, often from different functions, come together to work on a real business problem (Orridge, 1998, p. 28).

Problems, progress and conclusions are discussed as a group. Benefits are that as well as staff development taking place, an organisational problem is also solved.
Disadvantages are that it may take a while before any benefit occurs, as the group will have to get used to working together.
26. Problem-solving/task-centred
This involves mutual participation, criticism and correction behaviour by group members.
The groups can deal with problems ranging in difficulty and are encouraged to think creatively, logically, tactically, strategically and reflectively. Problem solving and communication techniques are used. Tasks or problems can be given which involve no

speaking, and/or in which each member has different parts to a puzzle. When the group are given the problem, a non-participating observer may study their behaviour pattern:
The activity can be divided into two phases.
During the first phase, the group is required to plan its activity and produce a set of objectives for itself. In the second phase, the group has to put its plan into action and it is during this operation that the group's plan succeeds or fails
(Rae, 1983, p. 64).
Problems are studied by breaking down the analysis into manageable chunks such as:
Identify problem, consider solutions, decide on solution, implement and evaluate (Osborne,
1996, p. 202).

When the problem has been solved, if an observer was present then he/she can feed his/ her observations back to the group. The observer can be changed after each exercise.
27. Meeting for two
Two people meet in order to improve the way they work together. This aims to bring about improvement by stating what each person expects of the other, making clear where these expectations are not being met and recognising how they can both be more helpful to each other. Another person may be present to give their views on any progress made ± this is called a triad. One person is the observer and judge; the other two discuss the problem or topic. For training purposes, one member begins the discussion; the other person must summarise what that person said before the discussion can proceed any further.
The observer acts as a referee and timekeeper.
When the allotted time has run out, the observer swaps roles with one of the other individuals. The same process continues until all three people have taken the role of observer. Members learn mainly to pay attention to what is being said, and that sometimes they may not be talking about the same thing.
28. Role reversal
In real life we are too preoccupied with our own problems and anxieties to see things from another person's point of view. Role reversal enables the trainee to experience different viewpoints, can help to resolve conflicts and can help people to appreciate each other's positions. Two people who have a point/idea/ conflict to discuss will outline their situation and then swap and become each other:

187

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson

The problem owner can become aware of the deeper implications of the problem, how the problem is viewed by the other person involved and also to show how the person is perceived by others (Rae, 1983, p. 77).

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

After they have talked through the situation, the trainees revert back to their own roles and reflect on the outcome.
29. Command group training
This trains people in groups for more effective combined procedures in their environment.
The training is based on opportunities and problems facing the organisation and strengths and weaknesses of the people in the group and the organisation. The group should consist of all the people who work together in a system of management and should contain different hierarchical levels.

Trainer-group interaction
30. Debate
A lively discussion to argue points of view on a particular subject. It is a helpful way of exploring opposing sides of an issue. Usually a group will divide into those who agree and those who disagree with the subject. A speaker will generally begin the debate with a controversial statement or opinion. A group leader/trainer is required to lead and control the debate. There are several different methods of debating:
(1) Formal. The group is put into teams; one team or more takes the pro side of the issue, and the other(s) take the negative side. Some trainees may act as judges of the debate, who will have set criteria on which to judge. Points can be awarded to each side and a time limit of between five and seven minutes should be enforced. A discussion should take place afterwards involving everybody. The judges should then announce the results of the debate.
(2) Informal. A controversial topic is announced. Participants are asked to take a side, either for or against. The participants then form two groups, one for those who agree with the topic and one for those who disagree. Each group then has some time to think of all the arguments for its case. The debate then begins with arguments from each side.
(3) Facing chairs. Chairs are placed in two facing lines, one for pros and one for

cons, so that the participants are facing each other. Both pros and cons state their arguments. The participants then swap sides so they then argue the other case to what they were before. A discussion is then held to see if any views have changed. (4) Seeking consensus. A debate is held; the participants are then asked if they will contribute £1 or more to a kitty. Now the two teams are told that they have to come to a mutual decision on the topic. If they do, the trainer tells them that he/she will add 50 per cent to the amount contributed to the kitty to be spent however the group wants. If they do not come to a consensus, then the trainer keeps all the money. Issues such as the ease of coming to a consensus and what effect the money had in motivating this decision can be discussed.
31. Discussion group/conference
These can be organised in different ways:
(1) Planned. The conclusion is known and the opening statements and important factors are arranged; the information is given by the leader.
(2) Partially-planned. The opening statement and conclusions may be known but the rest is planned as the discussion develops.
(3) Spontaneous. There is greater freedom and participants share thoughts and ideas. The leader must ensure that the subject matter is known. The agenda is determined by the members' priorities.
Discussions can be very time consuming, particularly if it is an open discussion, so care must be taken not to take more than the allotted time.
A discussion allows a trainer to introduce ideas, issues, tasks and problems. It can help promote group development or cohesion and allows for ideas and opinions to be developed and adjusted. The important variables in discussion are group size, seating positions, talkativeness, and personality of the participants and the kind of leadership. The leader's seating position usually indicates whether he/she expects the group to address him/her or each other:

188

A discussion or conference is suitable for acquiring and understanding conceptual data and for the development and modification of attitudes (Bass and Vaughan, 1966, p. 98).

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

Henry C. Wilson

The technique of discussion is not easy ± it requires skill and careful preparation. A study by Levine and Butler showed that discussions brought about changes in behaviour in a desired direction while a lecture did not (cited in Bass and Vaughan, 1966, p. 98). However, many lectures are coupled with discussions; a lecture enables the information to be given and a discussion allows the group to work with this information. A discussion is aimed towards promoting participant involvement and making them think about problems and issues. Many researchers have found that discussions are not carried out correctly and therefore are not effective.
Gage and Berliner state that the most appropriate size of a discussion group is from
2 to 20 participants and Hare claims that the optimum group size is five. Studies show that as group size increases, member participation decreases (cited in Gall and Gall, 1976):
The evidence is persuasive that, properly implemented, this method is more effective than other methods in achieving certain important educational objectives (Gall and Gall, 1976,
p. 216).

32. Question and answer
This method provokes thought and discussion and can be done separately to encourage learning or used along with other training methods as a form of assessment.
Trainers can direct questions at either individuals or groups. Many different teaching aids can be used to base the questions on, for example, pictures, video clips, overhead projectors. The answers can be written or spoken. A set of questions could be given after a lecture or topic to be answered and discussed in the next lecture/ tutorial. 33. Instruction method
This is a very widely-practised training exercise where:
(1) the trainer does a demonstration (show);
(2) the trainee has a go (do); and
(3) the trainee thinks about the situation
(think).
The steps are not necessarily in this order, and each step should proceed with an informing stage and end with a debriefing stage. The steps can be arranged to give six different instructional techniques:
(1) show/do/think (traditional);
(2) show/think/do (traditional);

(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

do/show/think (discovery); do/think/show (discovery); think/show/do (discovery); and think/do/show (discovery) (Osborne,
1996, p. 184).

Many users of this training method do not realise there are different ways of teaching it.
The method can be used to train people of varying abilities:
The discovery methods can build confidence as learners master new skills for themselves
(Osborne, 1996, p. 184).

General activities
34. Art
Art can be representational, symbolic, abstract, or a combination. It enables an individual to express creativity, emotion and imagination, improve communication of thoughts and feelings and reduce or eliminate hierarchical levels. Art highlights individual problems, values and goals. It is interesting, novel and fun, and therefore motivating. For training purposes, there are many different uses for art:
.
career and life progress can be drawn on a life-line; . pictures and symbols can be drawn to represent the individual and their job, personality, mood and problems, or an ideal/bad job, boss or team;
.
participants can draw their job, hobby, family and themselves as an ice-breaking activity at the beginning of the course;
.
individuals could imagine themselves or their job as a specific animal or object and then draw their images;
.
groups could be asked to draw a picture or mural between them; and
.
guided imagery can be combined with art if the trainer guides participants through a situation and then asks them to draw what they see.
Art is a flexible method of training and provides participants with a new way of looking at situations and feelings. Debriefing is essential to ensure learning takes place.
Finished work may be displayed on a wall for future reference.
35. Exercises
Structured training activities involving high participation and learning goals. Exercises can

189

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson

vary enormously. They may be short, simple, active and job-related or long, complex, passive and not job-related. There is such diversity in formats and purposes that exercises may be called experiential learning or activities. The factors that distinguish an exercise from other training methods are:
.
directed towards specific learning goals;
.
structured;
.
high participant involvement;
.
generation of data for participant analysis;
.
debriefing; and
.
not competitive (Eitington, 1989, p. 107).

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

Examples of exercises are: lists on a particular subject, brainstorming, designing plans and sharing experiences.
Tabletop exercises
Exercises used to test plans, procedures and people. The people involved are given an opportunity to interact with and understand the roles and responsibilities of others. The exercises engage people imaginatively and realistically. People who have got to know each other will work together much more effectively. Figure 2

usually combined with a discussion afterwards. 38. Role-play
Role-play is an active version of a case study and is designed to partially represent the real world. It is often based on counselling or human relations' problems and is used to:
Rehearse cognitive skills, develop interactive skills and bring about changes in attitude
(Osborne, 1996, p. 185).

36. Puzzles
Puzzles are used as a fun and exciting way of stimulating curiosity and creativity. They involve everyone and encourage a logical approach to problem solving. Puzzles teach participants: . problem-solving abilities;
.
risk taking;
.
creativity;
.
new approaches;
.
not to set unnecessary boundaries and limits; . to use imagination;
.
not to stereotype;
.
to look for new options;
.
to respect others' opinions;
.
to follow instructions carefully;
.
not to make assumptions;
.
to define problems clearly.
An example of a well-known puzzle is shown in Figure 2. It teaches participants to look beyond the obvious boundary.
37. Visits to other departments, short periods in other jobs
This broadens the outlook by experiencing or observing how people work and what people do in different areas of work. These visits are

There are two main types of training that roleplay are used for:
(1) Interpersonal skills in a particular area, for example, interview techniques. This training is highly structured and may lead to specific training needs not being identified. (2) Interpersonal skills on an individual basis enable the trainer to find out what skills need improving. This type of training is very flexible; however, it is time consuming and there is a danger of new, untried roles not working very well.
A third alternative is for the trainer to integrate both types of course.
Role-play has many advantages but it is limited to very simple situations. The situation may be real (i.e. participants own problems or situations), or hypothetical. The method can be pre-planned where the participants are prepared, or it may be spontaneous. It can be used as a demonstration, to illustrate a problem or approach, to generate a discussion, or as a group activity. Participants may play themselves, take the part of different characters or observe others doing so.
Participants assume specified roles and act out significant events; solutions are played out as they think the person whose role they are playing might view them. Role-play dramatises the situation under discussion and

190

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

Henry C. Wilson

helps the trainee become aware of other people's roles and problems. Situations may vary from very low threat to very high threat
(controversial, difficult). Any number of participants may be involved in a role-play, although participants are learning all the time because they are either experiencing the situation by acting out the role-play, thinking, engaging in self-critique or criticising others.
Role-play has many uses and benefits:
.
it can present information;
.
to communicate attitudes;
.
it acts as a safe training environment;
.
be used to learn principles;
.
to change attitudes;
.
to develop practical skills;
.
to check effectiveness of techniques;
.
to gain feedback;
.
to identify with others;
.
to learn how others think and feel; and
.
to change behaviour and to prepare employees for new experiences
(Eitington, 1989, pp. 67-8).
In the words of Balli:
Role-play is a versatile teaching model, applicable to a variety of educational objectives ± including understanding one's own or another's behaviour, acquiring new options for handling difficult situations, and improving specific skills
(Balli, 1995, p. 15).

Disadvantages of role-play are that some may think it is childish; also, over-acting can be a problem. Participants need to concentrate on the issues of the problem, not the acting. Care must be taken to avoid embarrassment or offence; however, the disadvantages of practising interpersonal skills in a real life situation are often much greater, particularly for someone who is inexperienced. A review is essential to provide feedback after role-play has taken place:
Whatever the degree of role-playing, there is very little opportunity for learning from the situation if there is no appraisal of the interaction (Rae,
1983, p. 74).

39. In-tray exercise
A management simulation designed to provide skill practice in problem solving and decision making (Eitington, 1989, p. 211).

Samples of administrative work in the form of a manager's in-tray is given to the trainee to be completed within a short period (up to one-and-a-half hours). There are usually about 15-20 items consisting of internal and external letters, faxes and memos, many of

which are interrelated. Problem-solving and decision-making skills are learnt. Logic is required for sorting and prioritising the information, as some items may be overlooked or focused on too much when they shouldn't be. Staff utilisation is important, utilising other employees in order to be more effective and efficient. Co-ordination and time-management are also factors to be learnt. Individuals work under pressure with no one to ask for advice and no other sources of information. All actions must be noted down and instructions to staff can be given in the form of short notes and memos. The trainee is given a scenario such as, ``You've returned from a holiday, sort out the in-tray''.
They then have to make the numerous decisions and actions. The object is to deal with the contents of the in-tray and any situations that they may reveal. How the trainee copes and what their priorities are form part of later discussion and feedback.

Problem-solving training
This training provides instruction to participants in problem solving, for use in training and in their job. Participants need to know how to:
.
Define a problem. As Albert Einstein said,
``The formulation of a problem is far more often essential than it's solution, which may be merely a matter of mathematical or experimental skill
(Eitington, 1989, p. 152). To define a problem, techniques such as Pareto's analysis, brainstorming, statistical procedures, check sheets and lists can be used. .
Generate data about the problem. Data, in the form of causes and effects or restraints and driving forces, can be collected using many methods, including force-field analysis, brainstorming, imaging, value analysis and T-columns.
.
Generate ideas or other courses of action to solve the problem. There are lots of methods that can be used to generate solutions to a problem, including brainstorming and the nominal group technique. .
Choosing a solution. Voting, ranking (with or without criteria), predicting success or failure and risk analysis can all be used to help decide on a solution.

191

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

.

Implement the solution or decision. The
``journalist's six questions'' can be used as a basis (when? where? why? what? who? how?). Brainstorming is always useful.
Past/present/future questions can be asked to see if an idea is suitable. Other basic strategies that are effective in problem solving include working on part of the problem at a time, focusing on gains and benefits, using pilot runs or demonstrations and using flip charts to encourage objectivity.

40. Games
Games are an experiential learning activity governed by rules, entailing a competitive situation with winners and losers. They do not reflect reality. Rapid learning comes from experiencing the game, but not from the subject matter of the game. Games often involve learners playing a role with a mission to win. They are presented with a scenario and are required to make decisions. Games sometimes compress time and events so that a situation that would take a year to develop in real-life can be ``played'' in an hour. There are usually two or more groups competing.
Games encourage high levels of involvement and motivation, and enable trainees to make decisions in a risk-free environment.
Participants are likely to remember the experience of playing a game. It is useful to have a feedback session afterwards to analyse the leadership skills, organisation, teamwork and communication of the participants.
A simulation game is a reality-based game; it may not be totally realistic but there is some representation of actuality involved. The games are still played competitively ± examples are war games and business games.
41. Business games
These vary from simple games that can be played in one to two days, to extremely complex computer simulations. They do not teach new material, but have a reinforcing function for newly learnt or under-used methods. Most business games simulate a total business environment divided into different periods, during which participants must make a wide range of decisions.
Specialised games have been developed for a variety of different activities. The games are motivating and challenging for all involved and invaluable training for decision making.
Business games provide practice in using data

about resources and processes that would be available to, for example, a general manager.
Due to the condensing of time, participants get to experience both long-term and shortterm strategies. Dill, Jackson and Sweeney
(cited in Goldstein, 1974) give a general description of a business game:
A business game is a contrived situation which embeds players in a simulated business environment where they must make management-type decisions from time to time, and their choices at one time generally affect the environmental conditions under which subsequent decisions must be made. Further, the interaction between decisions and environment is determined by a refereeing process which is not open to argument from the players (cited in Goldstein, 1974, p. 189).

There are some disadvantages to using business games as a training method:
.
the cost of developing and administering them is high;
.
some trainees have difficulty playing and relating a game to their job where the situation is different to that of their actual job; . the desire to ``win'' the game may lead strategies to be chosen that would not be practical in a real-life situation and that overlook training goals; and
.
too much time may be spent on game play, and too little time on criticism.
42. Scenario training
Those involved in management planning and processes attempt to build up an image of what the organisation will look like at some point in the future. This image is then used to explain objectives and plans.
43. Simulation
Simulation is a training activity designed to reflect reality. It may include role-play and inbasket exercises. Active learning results from experiencing the activity. Simulation is where participants experience the pressures and influences, and become part of a real life, rather than a theoretical situation (for example, vestibule training). A simulation of an actual event can be either small scale or large scale. It should include as many realistic items as possible. These situations test knowledge, co-operation and efficiency of the group. Simulations are commonly used for emergency planning.
They are concerned with the application of skill and knowledge and trains technical and

192

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

Henry C. Wilson

motor skills. A number of options are usually available in a simulation; direct feedback is given in that the action taken depends on the participants' responses. Participants will have to make decisions that will affect the course of the simulation.
``Mock-ups'' of different situations/ environments are used in an attempt to recreate the job environment in a controlled way (for example, aeroplane cockpits and space programmes). These are very useful as a research and training technique.
Characteristics of a real-life organisation or activity are presented as a case, to be experienced in realistic life-like circumstances. In many cases the required training is too complex to be safely handled by a trainee. Simulation allows the learner to be trained without any danger to him/herself, fellow workers or expensive equipment as it is a risk-free environment. For example, emergency techniques can be practised before exposure to hazardous situations in real settings. Participants do not act; they have to be themselves. Simulations are often used in conjunction with games; this is called a simulation game, for example a business game. Although simulations are expensive to set up, they are often an economical alternative to using high-priced on-the-job equipment. There is disagreement among authors of training publications as to whether simulations can ``shrink'' time or not. All simulations should be followed by a critique.
44. In-basket simulations
This is the least complex form of simulation; it is carried out using written materials that contain information on the particular simulation. The group must solve it with limited information and time. These simulations are easy to administer and include many elements of a case study.

Individual training
45. Pre-work
This is work done by participants before they begin the training course. Examples are logbooks, identifying problems at work to do with the subject of the course, reading an article or case study, or it could simply be to bring in specified data or objects from their place of work for group analysis. This creates active learning and involvement for all

participants; it stimulates interest and encourages motivation. Pre-work is most effective if it is relevant and is integrated into the training course. A full explanation of the requirements must be given so that there is no confusion. Pre-work is not advisable to use:
.
when the training group is a very busy one
(top-level managers or people who travel a lot);
.
if the group consists of people with a limited educational background;
.
if there is not much time before the day of the course;
.
if the tasks can be completed better in the training group; or
.
if the management of the participating organisation does not agree with the idea
(Eitington, 1989, p. 233).
46. Log book
A log book is used to record progress made by an individual in a particular training course. It is used to note any training received and tasks carried out, usually in a standard format.
Entries should be kept up-to-date and made regularly; all entries are then checked and signed by the individual's supervisor or trainer. Required skills are usually listed in the log book; each job is allocated a number and any skills demonstrated in the job are marked with the relevant job number. Often, a particular skill has to be demonstrated successfully a number of times before the individual can mark in the log book that he/ she is competent. When the individual has shown competence in all the skills listed, it is likely that he/she will then move on to a different section covering either more advanced skills or a different subject.
47. Special study
Read journals and books to keep up with specialist areas. This provides a way for people working in specialist areas to keep up with changes or new developments. This can be a substitute for a lecture, as the reading matter can be studied in a participant's own time and be referred to when necessary.
However, the participant would have to be very motivated. Reading assignments can be given by trainers to provide additional information to a lecture.
48. Open/flexible learning
The learner has a certain amount of choice over the pace and time of learning. Materials

193

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

used may include workbooks, videos, audiocassettes, books or computer software packages. Individuals may choose to do this in their own time, if the learning is for personal use, or they may be able to do it in work time if it has been organised by the company. For a company, benefits of open learning are that staff can be trained at a variety of locations ± even at their desk. It is good for targeted training; initial costs may be high, but if the materials can be used for a number of people in the organisation it can be much cheaper than conventional training. The individual may need encouragement and assistance to begin with.
49. Practice
Teaching and learning through repetition or practice is vital in acquiring a skill; continual practice is essential. Practice is useful in situations where set procedures are used. A trainer should ensure that the correct methods are being used and correct any errors as soon as possible. Positive criticism should be given. Reference material such as algorithms, notes or checklists may be used to assist the trainee.
50. Behaviour modification
This is the application of the principles of reinforcement developed by Skinner in his operant conditioning studies and is a combination between classical conditioning
(stimulus, response) and reinforcement conditioning (reinforcing stimulus sustains response). This results in the following training pattern which is related to work situations: stimulus ± induces response ± response if reinforced can be sustained.
The basic procedures of behaviour modification are:
.
an assessment is performed to see where problems exist;
.
reinforcers appropriate to the situation are selected;
.
the implementation of the program consists of a variety of different operant conditioning procedures, dependent on the behaviour of the trainees;
.
the desired responses are immediately and continuously reinforced; and
.
evaluation procedures take place to determine the degree of change.
Nord describes a programme undertaken by a company to try and reduce the level of

absenteeism and lateness. The company developed a programme where monthly prize draws were made. A prize worth about £20 was given for each 25 employees. Only members of staff who had a perfect attendance and punctuality record for the previous month could enter the draw. A major prize draw occurred every six months for a larger prize. The same rules applied for the staff. After a year, absenteeism and lateness were reduced by 75 per cent. Sickleave payments were reduced by about 62 per cent. Nord concluded that the lottery system served as a stimulus to reinforce punctuality and attendance at work (cited in Goldstein,
1974, pp. 175-6).
51. Force-field analysis
A description is given by an individual of something he/she wishes to change. Forcefield analysis then requires the individual to first define the change desired, then consider: . the driving forces (pushers) which will assist change; and
.
the restraining forces (pullers) which are against change.
The driving forces which are likely to be strong factors in assisting change are chosen and strategies are developed to utilise the strength of these to help produce change. The restraining forces are then analysed; the weaker ones are identified and strategies are developed to try and reduce their effect.
52. Coaching
More advanced and demanding than a lecture, coaching is a continuing process and enables an individual to develop skills and attitudes fully, feel more confident and understand the requirements for the job. A coach, usually through discussion, helps a colleague to learn to solve a problem or complete a task. It is usually a one-to-one method of training where detail is essential. Coaching demands high levels of interpersonal skills. Success depends on the relationship between the trainee and the supervisor. The coach is not necessarily the trainee's manager; it should basically be someone who is experienced in the subject matter. Coaching is ineffective if the supervisor:
.
is seen as a rival;
.
rejects individual needs;
.
is intolerant of mistakes; or

194

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson
.

does not allow enough time for the trainee to learn the skills.

encouragement and motivation (Brennan and
Little, 1996, p. 113).

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

Coaching is effective if the supervisor:
.
establishes a good relationship with the trainee; . is seen as a good role-model;
.
communicates well with the trainer;
.
accepts responsibilities; and
.
recognises improvements made by the trainee and rewards him/her accordingly.
53. Mentoring
A mentor is usually a fellow worker or a friend who is knowledgeable in the appropriate area of study or work and has probably been through the same training him/herself not long ago. They will be in daily contact with the trainee and can offer advice and support if required. Trainees will usually relate more to a mentor because they have shared the same sort of experiences and problems previously; they also act as a friend rather than a trainer.
A mentor helps the trainee to learn organisational cultures and practices and social and interpersonal techniques. Mentors enable the worker to learn, develop and move forward. The mentor, over a period of time from a year to five years, should assist and support the trainee in many aspects including learning and development. A mentor should ensure that a learner understands and can handle situations. Jowett (cited in Brennan and Little, 1996) describes the process of mentoring: In the first instance the mentor will be more proactive, supportive and encouraging, but in time the learner develops independence, confidence and autonomy. The mentor then needs to become more critical, challenging and confrontational, encouraging reflection.
Effective and lasting learning takes place when learners experience a balance of challenge and support, confrontation and encouragement
(Brennan and Little, 1996, p. 104).

Trainees work at their job while being supervised and observed; any errors can then be pointed out immediately and rectified.
Mentoring may make a significant difference to learners' work-based learning. Duckenfield and Stirner (cited in Brennan and Little,
1996) note that:
Many argue that the existence of a mentor can be a critical factor in making work-based learning a success by having the learner's interests at heart and the expertise to offer sound advice, by helping learners to reflect on their experience and by providing them with

On-the-job
This type of training requires no special space or equipment and enables the exact job to be practised, therefore eliminating problems of transferring training techniques. The trainee will also be working with the same people as they will be when the training has finished.
Companies can save money on hiring a professional trainer by using an experienced member of staff who will have had hands-on experience of the particular job. This method, however, may not be as effective as a professional trainer would be. Disadvantages of on-the-job training are that workspace and equipment will be tied up, waste may be high and the problem that production is essential so it may be given priority over training: While on-the-job training can work, it is not usually successful when it is used to avoid the necessity of designing a training program. As long as programs are designed solely for that purpose, they will face difficulties of incompetent instructors, priority production schedules, and a generally poor learning environment (Goldstein, 1974, p. 143).

Different methods of on-the-job training are as follows.
54. Work experience placements
A participant is employed temporarily (from two weeks to a year) in order to gain valuable experience in a work situation and to put academic skills into practice. The placement may be paid or unpaid and usually involves the completion of essays and reports.
55. Job instruction training
This is skilled, specialised training for a particular job. The trainee is supervised until he/she reaches an acceptable level of performance. The trainer can assess development, detect mistakes or bad habits and locate areas of weakness.
56. Apprentice training
A trainee works under supervision for a number of years; he/she is then qualified in his/her job. Usually the training is divided between classroom and on-the-job training, incorporating examinations and assessments.

195

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson

57. Internships and assistantships
The trainee enters a job at a high level, as a temporary head of department or an assistant manager. The trainee will then be fully involved in the requirements of the job immediately. A supervisor observes and reviews performance. A disadvantage may be that:

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

Many of these turn out to offer little training to participants while giving an organisation the free use of an eager mind and a pair of hands (Lynton and Pareek, 1967, p. 117).

58. Job rotation
The trainee moves from job to job within a company (on the same skill level). This provides the trainee with knowledge of different areas of work, shows him/her how jobs interrelate and broadens skills and outlook. Job rotation also reduces monotony. After a period in each area, trainees may be assigned to a specific job, or they may stay as flexible workers. Some workers may resent having to do this if they want to stay in a particular job. At the start of job rotation the output may decrease temporarily:
It does not follow that job interest, productivity, flexibility and quality of life will improve, but these can be gains (Osborne, 1996, p. 193).

59. Shadowing
Work skills and practices are learnt as the trainee follows an employee as he/she does his/her job. Trainees observe the way in which the employees go about their jobs and may be asked for their interpretation of events or what action they might take in a situation. The
``shadow'' must not be treated as someone to do the menial tasks; he/she should observe only. There may be the problem of the shadow picking up bad habits.
60. Induction training
The employee (new, hired, transferred, promoted) is introduced to his/her job environment, people whom he/she will be working with and company policies. The training can take days, weeks or months.
Induction training helps reduce anxiety, speeds up job orientation, assists employee retention, encourages goodwill and provides an opportunity to develop effective relationships.

Other
61. Mental imagery
This involves participants forming mind pictures as an aid to learning. Memory can be

assisted when an individual develops a picture in his/her mind to make connections.
For example, names and lists can be remembered by developing a mental image of them.
62. Visualisation
This method does not involve imagining, creating or making up an event or situation; it is the recollection and interpretation of actual events and situations that have been experienced, past or present. This is useful in helping participants come to terms with events and express their feelings, for example,
``Close your eyes and think of an experience you have had involving F F F''.
63. Vestibule training
Training which takes place on replica equipment. This may be set up in an area within an organisation, or at a separate location. The emphasis is on training rather than production (unlike on-the-job training).
The training can last for a few days or a few months and can reduce the problems in transferring training methods. The trainee can actively participate in the activities and has an opportunity to practice and repeat skills. The problem with using this method is that it is very costly to set up duplicate equipment. 64. Improvisation
This is required when the opportunity is given for questions to be asked. It demands a broad and deep knowledge of the subject matter.
Examples and illustrations will have to be thought up on the spur of the moment.
Improvisation enables difficult and problematic areas to be explained.
65. Joint training/inter-group meetings
This combines different groups or departments and aims to develop open communication with other teams in the organisation. It familiarises individuals with combined responses of all people involved in a situation, the management framework and how departments combine to provide joint operations. Awareness, communications, liaison and co-ordination are all key training topics. The aim is to create a mutual understanding and co-operation and, if necessary, cut down on conflict and competition between groups. Meetings or activities usually follow a set procedure

196

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson

involving the exchange of information and discussion: Joint training in a properly structured manner is important if the full potential of all the agencies involved is to be realised (Home Office, 1998,
p. 38).

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

66. Organisational/team mirroring
This involves a meeting where feedback is given from a number of important people with whom the company/team relates, for example customers or users of services. Its purpose is for individuals to see themselves and their team as others see them. Any inaccurate views that have previously acted as a barrier to working together effectively can sometimes be rectified to lead to a more efficient working situation.

How to use the training and assessment methods table
(1)

(2)
(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

The group/individual completes the learning styles questionnaire (LSQ) by
Honey and Mumford.
The individual(s) then score the questionnaire as shown.
Individual(s) use the appropriate norms to find out their level of preference for each style.
The trainer then collects the results and records in Table I the number of individuals at each level of preference, for all four styles.
Calculate the total score for each learning style by allocating five points for each individual with a very strong preference, four points for each individual with a strong preference, etc., and then adding these scores up.
The two learning styles with the highest scores should then be noted:
(Learning style 1)
(Learning style 2)
(Score 1)
(Score 2)

(7)

(8)

Table I Scoring table
Points
Very strong
Strong
Medium
Low
Very low

5
4
3
2
1
SCORE:

Activist

Pragmatist

Reflector

Theorist

If there are more than two scores with an equal score, then:
.
For an individual with more than two equal scores:
± Add up the scores in the section of the LSQ profile containing more than two preferences.
± Divide the answer by the number of scores there are to give an average score for the section.
± Work out the difference between the individual's scores and the average, using positive and negative numbers.
± Choose the two styles with scores that have the greatest positive difference. ± If this does not reduce the number of equal scores, then use combinations of the three/four styles and follow the rest of the instructions for each combination.
.
For a group with more than two equal scores: ± Choose the two styles that have the greatest number of people with a very strong or a strong preference for them.
± If this does not make any difference, try including the number of people with a medium preference for each style.
The learning style with the highest score
(learning style 1) is the main learning style of the group/individual. In order to find out whether this style is dominant or if there are a similar number of individuals who prefer the second highest learning style (learning style 2), the score of the second preferred style should be divided by the score of the preferred style:
Score 2
ˆ
Score 1
The number obtained by the above calculation is referred to in Table II.
This will give a number from one to three demonstrating that the styles are similar, or that the main style is stronger or dominant over the other style.

Table II Dominant style table
Number is in the range
0-0.33
0.34-0.66
0.67-1.00

197

Rank
3
2
1

Meaning
Main style dominant
Main style stronger
Styles are similar

(13) Team building
(66) Organisational/team mirroring 3 (dominant)

198

(14) Demand tasks
(40) Games

(19) Case study
(25) Action learning

2 (strong)

3 (dominant)

Activist

(27) Meeting for two
(59) Shadowing

(28) Role reversal
(49) Practice

(4) Workbook
(6) Training manual
(66) Organisational/team training Reflector
Pragmatist

(14) Demand tasks
(17) Team member teaching (21) Incident process case study (40) Games

(16) Brainstorming
(20) Critical incident process (23) Buzz groups
(64) Improvisation

Discussion groups
Seminar
Action maze
Problem solving/ task-centred (30) Debate
(31) Discussion groups/ conference (12)
(18)
(22)
(26)

Theorist

Activist

Question/answer
Puzzles
Special study
Mental imagery

Study guide
Log book
Mentoring
Discussion groups
Behaviour
modification
(45) Pre-work
(47) Special study
(59) Shadowing

(5)
(46)
(53)
(12)
(50)

(1) Lecture
(18) Seminar
(47) Special study

Theorist

(32)
(36)
(47)
(61)
Simulation
Work experience
Job instruction training
Apprenticeship
Internship/assistant
Job rotation
Induction training
Vestibule training

(32) Question/answer
(36) Puzzles

(31) Discussion groups/ conference (19) Case study

(14) Demand tasks
(17) Team member teaching Activist

(43)
(54)
(55)
(56)
(57)
(58)
(60)
(63)

(39) In-tray exercise
(44) In-basket simulation

(19) Case study
(29) Syndicate/projects
(25) Action learning

(34) Art
(62) Visualisation
(48) Open/flexible learning

(7) Algorithms
(29) Command group training (45) Pre-work

Reflector

Pragmatist

Instruction method
Scenario training
Coaching
Mentoring

Workbook
Study guide
Log book
Micro-training

(4) Workbook
(20) Critical incident process (7) Algorithms
(28) Role reversal

(35) Exercises
(42) Scenario training

Theorist
Pragmatist

(33)
(42)
(52)
(53)

(4)
(5)
(46)
(76)

(2) Teaching machines/ programmed learning
(3) Computer-based teaching (51) Force-field analysis

Theorist
Meeting for two
Role reversal
Behaviour modification
Shadowing

(41)
(22)
(48)
(61)

Business games
Action maze
Open/flexible learning
Mental imagery

(13) Team building
(53) Mentoring

(45) Pre-work
(47) Special study
(59) Shadowing

Reflector

Examples
Demonstration
Case example
Visit to other departments (49) Practice

(8)
(9)
(11)
(37)

(6) Training manual
(10) 3D models/exhibits

(27)
(28)
(50)
(59)

Reflector

Henry C. Wilson

(29) Syndicate/projects
(20) Critical incident process 1 (similar)

(15) Programmed group exercises (35) Exercises

2 (strong)

Activist

(38) Role play
(41) Business games
(65) Joint training/ inter-group meeting

1 (similar)

Pragmatist

Table III Learning styles and training methods

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2
Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Emergency response preparedness: small group training. Part 2

Disaster Prevention and Management
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2000 . 180±199

Henry C. Wilson

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

(9)

The trainer will now have the following information which is needed to use the training methods table:
.
Learning style 1: ____
.
Learning style 2: ____
.
Rank: ____
If the two styles are identical, the two styles can be interchanged both with a rank of 1. For example, the trainer can use: .
Learning style 1: Activist
.
Learning style 2: Pragmatist
.
Rank: 1 or .
Learning style 1: Pragmatist
.
Learning style 2: Activist
.
Rank: 1
(10) To use the learning styles and training methods table (Table III):
.
Refer to learning style 1 along the top line of Table III.
.
Refer to learning style 2 in the section under learning style 1.
.
This column contains training methods appropriate to the two main learning styles of the group/ individual. .
All the methods for the main learning style could be selected, or more specifically, the methods suited to the main learning style and the less dominant style.
.
To match the styles and training methods more precisely, look at the row that matches the rank calculated for the group/individual.

References
Adams, D., Gibbs, G., Jaques, D. and Watson, D. (1988),
Workbooks: A Practical Guide, Oxford Polytechnic,
Educational Methods Unit.
Balli, S.J. (1995), ``Oh no F F F not role play again!'',
Training and Development, Vol. 49 No. 2, February, pp. 14-15.
Bass, B.M. and Vaughan, J.A. (1966), Training in
Industry: The Management of Learning, Tavistock,
London.
Brennan, J. and Little, B. (1996), A Review of Work-based
Learning in Higher Education, Department of
Education and Employment, HMSO, London.
Dickinson, A.W. (1973), Effective Company Training,
Longman, London.
Eitington, J.E. (1989), The Winning Trainer, Gulf, Houston,
TX.
Gall, M.D. and Gall, J.P. (1976), ``The discussion method'', in Gage, N.L. (Ed.), The Psychology of Teaching
Methods, National Society for the Study of
Education, IL.
Goldstein, I.L. (1974), Training: Program Development and
Evaluation, Brooks/Cole, Monterey, Belmont and
Pacific Grove, CA.
Home Office (1998), Dealing with Disaster, HMSO,
London.
Lynton, R.P. and Pareek, U. (1967), Training for
Development, Richard D. Irwin, Homewood, IL.
Orridge, M. (1998), How to Deliver Training, Gower,
Alsershot.
Osborne, D. (1996), Staff Training and Assessment,
Cassell, London.
Rae, W.L. (1983), The Skills of Training, Gower, Alsershot.
Thomas, E.J. (1972), ``The variation of memory with time for information appearing during a lecture'',
Studies in Adult Education, Vol. 1, April, p. 60.
Walkin, L. (1982), Instructional Techniques and Practice,
Stanley Thornes, Cheltenham.

199

This article has been cited by:

Downloaded by Arab Open University Kuwait At 11:19 09 December 2015 (PT)

1. Robert Holmgren. 2012. Preparations for Practical Exercises in Vocational Education: Can ICT-based Distance Instruction be an Alternative to Face-to-face Instruction? An Empirical Contribution. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46, 1152-1161.
[CrossRef]
2. David Alexander, Luca Bramati, Massimo Simonetta. 2009. Emergency Preparedness Training and Education in Lombardy
Region, Italy: Survey of Supply and Demand. Natural Hazards Review 10, 77-83. [CrossRef]
3. Ralph Catts, Dave Chamings. 2006. Recognising current competencies of volunteers in emergency service organisations.
Journal of Workplace Learning 18:7/8, 451-463. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
4. Merilyn Childs. 2005. Beyond training: new firefighters and critical reflection. Disaster Prevention and Management: An
International Journal 14:4, 558-566. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
5. David Alexander. 2003. Towards the development of standards in emergency management training and education. Disaster
Prevention and Management: An International Journal 12:2, 113-123. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]