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MATERIALES INGENIERILES: LOS MATERIALES QUE USAN LOS INGENIEROS

“Las propiedades mecánicas de los materiales nos indican qué tan bien soporta un material las fuerzas que se aplican sobre él. A nivel microscópico, estas propiedades son originadas por la forma en que los átomos de un material se enlazan entre sí. En cambio, las propiedades electrónicas de los materiales son originadas por la forma en que los electrones de un material reaccionan frente a una excitación.” (Álvarez Camacho, Siqueiros Beltrones, Revista Universitaria-UABC, No. 44, octubre-diciembre 2003). Elegir un material de acuerdo a sus propiedades mecánicas es lo que ha hecho el hombre desde que apareció en la Tierra, mientras que la elección de un material según sus propiedades electrónicas es relativamente nueva pero ha causado tal impacto en nuestro mundo que muchos de los descubrimientos que se han dando en los últimos años habrían sido imposibles de alcanzar de no haberse descubierto las propiedades electrónicas de los materiales. Sin embargo, es preciso aclarar que el destino de las propiedades mecánicas no es el de ser reemplazadas por las electrónicas, por el contrario, antes que sobreponerse o estorbarse se complementan. Pero para hacer más entendible esta discusión es necesario describir tanto las propiedades de los materiales como algunas de las distintas categorías de los materiales.

Dureza: La dureza es una propiedad mecánica de los materiales consistente en la dificultad que existe para rayar o crear marcas en la superficie mediante micropenetración de una punta o indentador. Es también la capacidad que tiene un material de soportar esfuerzos sin deformarse permanentemente.

Tenacidad: Es la energía total que absorbe un material antes de que se produzca una fractura en su estructura. A mayor dureza en un material, menor será su tenacidad.
Resistencia a la falla: Resistencia a la deformación (dureza) combinada con la resistencia a la ruptura (tenacidad) que permite que una pieza no sufra ningún cambio a partir de su forma original.
La conductividad eléctrica es la capacidad de un cuerpo de permitir el paso de la corriente eléctrica a través de sí. La existencia de electrones libres es un requisito indispensable para que un material sólido pueda permitir el paso de una corriente eléctrica. Cuando esta condición se cumple, se dice que el material en cuestión es un conductor; en caso contrario, dicho material es conocido como aislante.

La corriente eléctrica es el flujo de carga por unidad de tiempo que recorre un material. Se debe a un movimiento de los electrones, cuya carga es negativa, por el interior del material y está medida en Amperios.
La conductividad térmica es una propiedad física de los materiales que mide qué tan fácil es el transporte de un flujo de calor. Cuando un material permite que se establezca un flujo de calor, se dice que tal material es un conductor térmico. Por el contrario, si dicho material no permite el paso de una corriente térmica, entonces se dice que es un aislante térmico.

Metales: Son difíciles de hallar en estado puro en la naturaleza y son relativamente blandos, por lo que su dureza es incrementada mediante aleaciones, sin embargo, un incremento en la dureza produce una disminución en su tenacidad, por lo que se busca que las aleaciones den como resultado un elemento balanceado en su dureza y tenacidad. Debido a que los metales permiten a los electrones moverse libremente, esto los convierte en excelentes conductores de calor y electricidad.

Cerámicas: Gozan de una dureza extrema, lo cual implica una muy baja tenacidad, por lo tanto se quiebran con una gran facilidad. Son también muy resistentes a las altas temperaturas, pero al no ser reciclables aumentan sus costos de producción. En su gran mayoría, son malos conductores de electricidad, por lo cual suelen ser utilizadas como aislantes; en cuanto a sus propiedades como conductores térmicos, algunas cerámicas tienen propiedades de aislantes mientras que otras poseen valores de conductividad que en ocasiones sobrepasan a los de los metales.

Plásticos: También llamados polímeros, son materiales orgánicos obtenidos a partir del petróleo. Tiene una baja resistencia a las altas temperaturas y en general son significativamente más blandos que los metales. A pesar de que su tenacidad es menor que la de los metales, esta sigue siendo relativamente alta, por lo que resulta más fácil deformar un polímero que quebrarlo. Aunque hay algunos polímeros con propiedades superconductoras de electricidad, en su gran mayoría son aislantes eléctricos; en cuanto a su conductividad térmica, esta es menor que la de las cerámicas. Su uso está limitado a situaciones en las que la resistencia a altas temperaturas no es un factor, y en este tipo de casos ha llegado ser preferido por encima de las cerámicas y los metales.

Compositos: Material formado de dos materiales sintéticos diferentes, combinados de tal modo que se puedan aprovechar las propiedades mecánicas de cada uno de ellos. Esta combinación de materiales produce estructuras muy resistentes y livianas.

Semiconductores: A altas temperaturas, este tipo de materiales incrementan su conductividad mientras que a bajas temperaturas no permiten el paso de la corriente eléctrica, siendo el silicio el semiconductor alrededor del cual gira la tecnología electrónica actualmente. Los semiconductores pueden conducir la electricidad de dos maneras: por electrones y por cargas “positivas” o huecos, aunque también existen los semiconductores mixtos, los cuales conducen la electricidad tanto por electrones como por huecos.

Superconductores: Se conoce como superconductores a aquellos materiales que a temperaturas cientos de grados por debajo de la temperatura de congelación del agua pueden tener una conductividad eléctrica cercana al infinito. La limitante de la temperatura aunada al hecho de que los mejores superconductores son las duras y frágiles cerámicas, ha dado como resultado que este tipo de materiales no sean una opción económicamente viable en la mayoría de sus posibles aplicaciones. Sin embargo, además de sus propiedades conductivas, también pueden utilizarse para producir elevados campos magnéticos, y es precisamente ahí donde los superconductores han logrado tener un verdadero uso comercial en la forma de resonancias magnéticas.

Al principio, el hombre tomaba lo que necesitaba directamente de la naturaleza; después aprendió a extraer de la naturaleza misma aquello que le era imposible tomar de forma directa; posteriormente logró combinar distintos materiales para así dejar de depender de lo que podía extraer de la naturaleza, a este proceso de crear materiales se le conoce como ingeniería de materiales y el campo de la ciencia que se encarga del estudio y creación de dichos materiales se le conoce como ciencia de los materiales. Este tipo de ciencia no es útil solamente para los ingenieros que estudian la creación de materiales sino para cualquier tipo de ingeniero, ya que en algún momento aquéllos que estudiaron alguna ingeniería se verán en la disyuntiva de tener que escoger entre dos o más tipos de materiales para la elaboración de un proyecto, y la respuesta a su problema será dada por las propiedades mismas de los materiales en cuestión antes que por el mero azar.

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