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Nerve Cell Assignment

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Submitted By Babenlau
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Tobias Laulund
2.u - biologi
Vestjysk Gymnasium Tarm

Aktionspotentialet
Redegør for hvor og hvordan et aktionspotentiale startes.
For at nerveceller kan kommunikere med hinanden, skal der dannes et aktionspotentiale. Et aktionspotentiale er en ændring i membranpotentialet, som fører til, at elektriske impulser videresendes. Når nervecellen ikke danner aktionspotentialer siges nervecellen at være i hvile. Når nervecellen er i hvile er membranpotentialet -70mV. Dvs. at nervecellen er mere negativ i sit indre i forhold til det ydre, hvor ladningen er neutral. Negativiteten i cellens indre skyldes ion-fordelingen på indre- og yderside, samt mange negativt ladede proteiner, som befinder sig inden i cellen. Netop derfor måler vi membranpotentialet til at være negativt. Nervecellen modtager hele tiden impulser fra andre nerveceller, både fremmende og hæmmende. For at disse impulser kan videreføres, skal der modtages et overskud af fremmende signaler. Når nervecellen modtager et fremmende signal, åbnes natriumkanaler i dendritområdet, hvorved cellens indre og dermed også membranpotentialet bliver mere positivt. Hvis membranpotentialet når en grænse på -55mV, som netop er nervecellens tærskelværdi for at danne et aktionspotentiale, sker der en kaskadeeffekt. Altså, at en Na+-kanal, får flere Na+-kanaler til at åbne. Na+ diffunderer nu passivt ind i cellen. Man siger nu, at cellen er blevet depolariseret, da cellen er blevet meget mere positivt ladet. Vi når nu det maksimale niveau, som også kaldes peak-værdien (hvor stor er peak-værdien?), hvilket er der hvor samtlige kanaler er åbent maksmialt. Altså den maksimale depolarisering som cellen kan få. Depolariseringen breder sig hurtigt fra dendritområdet langs aksonet og videre til terminalområdet, hvorfra transmitterstof frigives til synapsekløften, og signalet sendes videre til andre neuroner. Straks herefter åbnes kanalerne for Ka+, hvor der igen sker en kaskadeeffekt, og Ka+-ionerne diffundere ud af nervecellen - repolarisering forekommer. Konkretiseres på ovenstående billede.

Hvilke ion-kanaler er medvirkende til aktionspotentialet, og hvordan, samt hvornår virker de?
Altafgørende for aktionspotentialet er som før nævnt Na+-kanalen. Når cellen modtager et impuls, åbnes Na+-kanaler i cellens dendritområde, hvorved Na+ passivt diffunderer ind i cellen. Dette sker, fordi Na+/Ka+-pumpen hele tiden opretholder en gradient for Na+, således at der under normale omstændigheder er en betydeligt højere koncentrationen af Na+-ioner uden for cellen, mens koncentrationen af Ka+-ioner er betydeligt højere inden i cellen, end uden for cellen. Når cellen er i hvile, er det næsten umuligt for ioner at trænge igennem membranen. Dette kan dog forekomme, men sendes hurtigt tilbage af de aktive Na+/Ka+-pumpen. Pumpen sidder i cellemembranen og pumper konstant aktivt løs af de positivt ladede ioner. Den pumper 3 Na+-ioner ud af cellen og 2 Ka+-ioner ind i cellen, hvormed der som sagt bliver opbygget betydelige koncentrationsforskelle mellem det indre og det ydre af cellen.

Calcium effekter
Den væske der omgiver et neuron hedder ekstracellulær væske. I denne væske er der mange forskellige ioner opløst, heriblandt calcium.
Hvilken betydning vil det have for neuronets funktion, hvis man fjernede alt calcium fra det ekstracellulære rum omkring en neuron?
Nerveimpulsen ankommer til endeterminalen på den præsynaptiske nervecelle, hvormed Ca++-kanalerne åbner, og Calcium/Ca++ diffunderer ind i endeterminalen. Calcium er afgørende for vesiklernes, som indeholder transmitterstof, bevægelse til endeterminalen. Ved endeterminalen fusionerer vesiklerne sammen med endeterminalens membran, hvor den dermed frigiver transmitterstof til synapsekløften. Hvis man derfor fjernede alt calcium fra det ekstracellulære rum omkring nervecellen, ville det ikke være muligt at sætte vesiklerne i bevægelse. Hvis vesiklerne ikke bliver sat i bevægelse, ville vesiklerne ikke fusionerer med endeterminalens membran og dermed frigive de tilgængelige transmitterstoffer. Calcium-ioner er derfor en nødvendighed for frigivelse af transmitterstoffer, som kan være henholdsvis hæmmende og stimulerende.
Calmodulin er et proteinstof, der binder calcium inden i nervecellen. Calmodulin medvirker til at forhindre al for høje calcium koncentration i det intra-cellulære rum (cytoplasmaet), hvilket ellers kan føre til at cellen dør via apoptosis. Calmodulin holder således en lav koncentration af calcium ved at binde til dette.

Hvad ville der ske, hvis man hæmmede calmodulin, så det ikke optimalt til calcium?
Hvis man hæmmede calmodulin i cytoplasmaet, vil den intracellulære koncentration af calcium stige, hvilket er skadeligt for cellen, og i værste tilfælde vil det kunne føre til celledød.

Hvilken effekt vil vi forvente med hensyn til neuronets funktion?
Da en alt for høj calcium koncentration i cytoplasmaet kan resultere i cellens død, forventer vi selvfølgelig at neuronets funktion nedsættes, når calcium koncentrationen bliver højere end det optimale. Dermed kan det til sidst forekomme at cellen dør via apoptosis, hvis koncentrationen bliver alt for høj.
Hvad er det der får den præsynaptiske neuron til at udskille transmitterstof til den synaptiske kløft?
Når nerveimpulsen løber langs cellen og når til endeterminalen, sker der en åbning af Ca++-kanaler. Derved kan Ca++-ioner sive ind i endeterminalen. Når Ca++-ionerne siver ind i cellen, sætter det gang i vesiklerne, som indeholder transmitterstoffer. Herefter sker der en proces som hedder exocytose. En proces, hvor vesiklerne bevæger sig til endeterminalens membran, og de fusionere dernæst sammen med endeterminalens membran, hvormed der skabes et og transmitterstoffer frigives til synapsekløften. Denne beskrivelse kan også ses illustreret på ovenstående billede.

Transmitterstof
Transmitterstoffer virker som det kemiske signal imellem nerveceller. De kan bevirke mange forskellige effekter alt efter hvilke receptorer de binder til på den postsynaptiske neuron.
Gør rede for effekterne af GABA og Acetylcholin – kom herunder ind på hvordan de adskiller sig i deres effekt på den postsynaptiske neuron, og hvordan de påvirker sandsynligheden for at danne et aktionspotentiale?
GABA og Acetylcholin adskiller sig meget, eftersom at GABA er et hæmmende transmitterstof og at Acetylcholin er et stimulerende transmitterstof. Når GABA binder sig til GABA-receptoren på den postsynaptiske celle bliver der i samme omgang lukket Cl--ioner ind i nervecellen. Det hæmmer muligheden for at opnå et aktionspotentiale, og nerveimpulsen standser, da Cl- er negativt, og dermed gør det nervecellen mere negativt ladet.
Man kan altså sige at cellen bliver hyperpolariseret, hvilket altså vil sige at der sker en ændring i membranpotentialet, som går under de -70mV, som man også kan se på sidestående billede.
Derudover har vi Acetylcholin som er et stimulerende transmitterstof, og når dette transmitterstof binder til receptorerne på den postsynaptiske nervecelles membran, kommer der i samme omgang Na+-ioner ind i cellen. Hermed bliver cellen mere positiv, og der forekommer en etablering af aktionspotentialet. Hermed kan nerveimpulsen fortsætte fra nervecelle til nervecelle.

Når chlor specifikke ion-kanaler åbnes på den postsynaptiske membran af synapsen, så bevirker det en influx (indstrømning) af Cl- ioner. Hvilken effekt har denne influx på cellens membranpotentiale?
Som beskrevet ovenfor, vil en indstrømning af Cl—ioner bevirke, at cellens indre bliver mere negativt og at cellen så at sige hyperpolariseres, hvorved der skal et kraftigere signal til at stimulere cellen til at danne et aktionspotentiale.

Forklar hvorfor transmitterstoffer bør fjernes fra synapsen. Inddrag i din forklaring, en beskrivelse af de forskellige mekanisme, som der kan gøres brug af for at fjerne transmitterstoffer.
Det er vigtigt at få fjernet transmitterstofferne fra synapsen, da nerven ellers vil blive ved med at stimulere. Det kan både stimulere den samme nerve, men det kan også flyde væk og stimulere andre nærliggende nerver, og derved ser man en masse fyringer, hvormed man kunne forestille sig en situation som minder om epileptiske anfald. Der er 4 principielle måder, hvorpå transmitterstofferne kan fjerne fra synapsespalten.
Transmitterstofferne kan blive nedbrudt af enzymer i synapsespalten.
Transmitterstofferne, kan ved hjælp af specifikke pumper, genoptages i den præsynaptiske endeterminal. Transmitterstofferne kan blive optaget af gliacellerne og derefter nedbrudt. Dernæst kan transmitterstofferne forsvinde fra synapsespalten ved dffusion.

Nervegift
Giften fra den thailandske cobraslange indeholder et dødeligt neurotoksin. Giftens virkning på en motorisk synapse er vist på figur 2. Forgiftningssymptomerne er lammelser og åndedrætsstop. Eneste behandlingsmulighed er behandling med serum, som er fremstillet ved at indsprøjte små mængder af slangegiften i en hest. Efter nogle dage tappes serum fra hesten.

Forklar forgiftningssymptomerne ud fra figur 2.
Det giftige stof fra slangen, går ind og blokerer receptorene på den postsynaptiske celle. Altså de receptore som almindeligvis binder acetylkolin, som er et stimulerende transmitterstof, og som etablere et aktionspotentiale. Normalvist kan nerveimpulsen fortsætte fra celle til celle, men da neurotoksin blokere acetylkolin-receptorene, er dette ikke muligt, og derfor stopper nerveimpulsen i syn. Dette kan medvirke til nogle symptomer, som f.eks. kunne være lammelser og åndedrætsproblemer.

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