Q) Discuss the revolution in Cosmology from Copernicus to Newton. In your essay, address the steps resulting in the breakdown of long held beliefs from Aristotle’s days, and Ptolemaic theories. * Prior to Aristotle. There were several other models of the universe, with the Phytogrean universe the most popular. In this model there existed a central fire in the middle of the universe, from which all light descended. * In Aristotle’s model of the universe the world outside the Earth existed, finitely, with nothing ever moving. With the universe in the same position as it ever was. This model of the universe was widely accepted and considered to be a scientific fact for many generations to come. According to Aristotle the universe was filled with a substance called aether to compensate for its dynamic nature.
* One of the most important reason for the wide acceptance of Aristotle’s model of the universe was that it correlated with religious views of the time.
* Aristotle’s model was further adopted by Ptolemy, to create Ptolemaic view of the universe. This led to the birth of the Aristotle-Ptolemy universe. In this model the Earth was the centre of the universe with the universe revolving around it.
* The view persisted for more than and allowed the astronomers to predict the movement of the galaxy and the stars around the Earth. Star charts were developed first in this era. By the sixteenth century this view was intertwined into all of the world’s cutltures.
* In the sixteenth century Copernicus found that there were many mysteries regarding the prevailing view of the universe. By using math and astronomy, he theorized that the view was incorrect, and that in reality it was the Earth that was revolving around the Sun. Furthermore he established that there were three motions to the earth, First the Earth revolved around the sun annually, rotated daily, and annually tilted its axis. He further theorized that the moon was rotating similary around the Earth. He was chastised for this view, and did not persue it till later in his life due to Scientific and Religious convention of the times.
* Copernicus’s universe explained several discrepancies scientists of the day were having with Aristotle’s universe. Sir Issac Newton was one of the emerging mind who was fascinated with Copernicus’s model of the universe. He adopted it immediately for all of his work.
* Newton’s work led to laws regarding all motion and matter in the universe. Newton’s laws further established Copernicus’s model of the universe, and explained retrograde motion and the force of gravity. This model is accepted even today.
Q) Compare and Contrast Jean Baptiste Lamarcks theory of transmutation with that of Charles Darwin.
* Before Darwin, the theory of Transmutation had gained wide acceptance within the scientific community. Peers and Scientists were beginning to notice that some species no longer existed due to archialogical digs, and that other species had similar predecessors.
* Both Evolution and Transmutation adhere to the basic laws that species come to remove harmful traits and characteristics over a period of time, and could also become a separate species if enough change has taken place. Understandibly Species may also gain new traits and charachteristics through adaptation of a new environment.
* Darwin’s evolution is indifferent as to the nature of the cause of Evolution. In Darwin’s evolution there is no higher power which causes the evolution but rather evolution is in the genetic nature of all species. It is an unconscious drive within the DNA to constantly seek betterment.
* Transmutation on the other end, gives credit of the betterment of the species to wilful action by a higher power, such as God, with wilful process that are in the inherent nature of species.
* Darwin’s evolution can be summarized as follows:
1) Species reproduce through sexual selection of mates.
2) Members of the species mate with the best traits and characteristics.
3) Over generations negative traits are removed, and positive traits are gained.
4) Process takes millions of years. * Theory of Transmutation:
1) Species reproduce through sexual selection of mates.
2) Members of the species mate with the best traits and charachteristics.
3) Species go through spontaneous mutations and become different species who are better suited for the environment.
4) The act is done by a higher power, and only takes a single generation.

Q) Discuss the emergence and impact of mechanical philosophy on the development of science in the seventeenth century. * Mechanical Philosophy is the philosophy that all matter in the universe operates similar to a machine, with all matter acting as parts of an entire machine * Thomas Hobbes and Rene Descartes were the first philosophers to dwell and theorize on the idea with published works, though many philosophers before had mentioned the ideas. Mechanical philosophy went against the then held belief of Aristotle’s views on the nature of the universe. Thus the view was not readily embraced. * Mechanical philosophy initially came under harsh criticism as it left no room for a wilful power to be acting in the process and the movement of the universe. In essence there was no room for a soul in the mechanical universe. * Issac Newton was heavily influenced by the mechanical philosophy. Newton had gained wide spread acceptance as a great mind in the field of physics due to his establishment of the laws of motions. Due to his wide spread persuit of the matter, Mechanical Philosophy started to gain momentum. * Newton went on to established further laws of physics based on a mechanical universe, however the major point was the attraction of gravity which existed in all the planet. Since gravity existed throughout the universe and it was constant, it replaced the unknown forced that caused the planets to move. * The rise of the belief in the mechanical universe, gave rise to the concept of dualism. Dualism is the point of view that there exist two different realities. A reality of the physical mechanical world were all units act like parts of a machine. In contrast there exists a mental reality, one that harbours the soul and has no mechanical logical parts, but rather is intristic to the nature of perception. * As the seventeenth century came to an end, it was generally agreed that the universe was entirely made up of small solid corpuscles which and moved and changed direction as they bumped and were bumped.

Q) Discuss the role that studies of combustion played in eighteenth century chemical revolution. * The Chemical Revolution started in the 18th century, which denotes the reformulation of chemistry as a major science in determining the nature of reality, and its use to the betterment of humanity. The oxygen theory of combustion was the most important aspect of the chemical revolution. * During the late 18th century, Joseph Priestly, isolated oxygen using combustion, as his experiments were shown in public, the method was recorded and published simultaneously in journals across western Europe. * Furthermore, the use of isolated oxygen via combustion was of great practical use, as oxygen gas can be confined and is almost ten times more efficient then regular air. * The practical use of combustion drove different nationalities and legislation into a race to make quick use of this new knowledge. Research Scientists were designated by different countries for experimentation. * Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele and French scientist Antoine Lavoisier further looked to develop combustion, and claimed to discover oxygen for themselves. This led to further competition between various countries to isolate even more gasses. * The importance of combustion cause many scientists to switch from the field of physics. Scientists who had their curiousities satisfied with Newtons mechanical universe were now more intrigued by a new chemical world to explore. The trades were also more profitable due to their practical nature. * Combustion eventually gave an answer to the great mystery of chemicals and the elements of the earth. Since the Roman-Grecko times, it had become accepted that there were 5 elements on earth, those being Earth, Water, Fire. Wind, and a mysterious substance which had caused great amount of philosophical debate. * Lavoisier’s full explanation of the combustion of Oxygen allowed research scientists to explain chemical within the realm of the four elemants and thus the chemical revolution was born.

Q) Discuss the changing image and identity of the scientists from the natural philosophers of Aristotle’s times to the research Specialists of the 20th century. * During the Grecko-Roman times of Aristotle, Scientists were indistinguished from Philosophers. Since this was the beginning of Science, all science was virtually the study of nature. These men were called Natural Philosophers. * During the classical Anquity period the term Scientist was first coined. These “Scientists” were branched out from natural philosophers, and usually followed a method of belief regarding the nature of reality such as religious or non religious. During these times, Scientists were still very general in nature. A man of science was expected to know everything from medicine to mathematics. * Scientists during these times were often considered to be a burden on society since they contributed very little practical knowledge to their communities. In most of these communities religion dictated most methods of life. * During the 5th century, the Roman empire came to an end, and most of western Europe became deeply intertwined in religion. Since Science itself has always been the opposite of religions, many philosophical texts were destroyed. This led to several centuries were there was no progress in science. These are often referred to as the dark ages. Scientists during this time were often prosecuted and blamed with delivering the powers of witch craft. * The Islamic empire caused a change in the world view regarding science. Early Islam gave rise to the pursuit of specialists who were designated to pursue science in different areas. They also translated ancient Greek texts. These translations often made their way into western Europe through smuggling. * Near the end of the dark ages, gave another rise to science in Europe. Scientists were now once again asked to solve some of the worlds problems. Furthermore science was becoming practical, and as such Science was not just pursued by men with philosophical interests, but also for financially profitable reasons. * During this time also saw the establishment of the first four universities in the world. The universities led to separate courses for students, and professors subsequently went to upgrade their own chosen fields. * The seventeenth century led to the first specialists. With Newton establishing his physical laws of the world, scientists were now asking less general questions. Other factors such as the chemical revolution, increasing population, and the increased practicality of science led to research specialists by their designated countries.

Q) Discuss the emergence of evolutionism from the enlightenment of the modern synthesis of the twentieth century.