...Chapter 3 Computer Hardware W1 MODERN CHIP COMPONENTS The four most important concepts in microprocessor architectures are functional units, pipelines, caches, and buses. These factors determine how fast a processor will run and how efficiently it will communicate with the outside world. Functional units are subsystems of logic circuits that carry out a program’s instructions. Different types of functional units handle different instructions. Integer units handle fixed-point arithmetic and Boolean logic. Floating-point units handle more complex arithmetic operations, involving noninteger values. Load/store units load data from and store data to memory. Pipelines work like factory assembly lines. Each stage of the pipeline handles one relatively small and simple task that comprises part of the work needed to execute one computer instruction. A simple pipeline has four stages: fetch (retrieve an instruction from cache); decode (figure out what the instruction does); execute (carry out the instruction); and write back (store the result). Each pipeline stage usually takes one clock cycle. Most modern processors have superscalar pipelines, which are two or more pipelines arranged in parallel. That way, the processor can issue and complete multiple instructions in each clock cycle. The processor may also rearrange the instructions at execution time to put them in a more efficient order. This procedure is called dynamic execution. Modern processors can operate at speeds above 1...
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...1 Civilization advances by extending the number of important operations which we can perform without thinking about them. Alfred North Whitehead, An Introduction to Mathematics, 1911 Computer Abstractions and Technology 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Eight Great Ideas in Computer Architecture 11 1.3 Below Your Program 13 1.4 Under the Covers 16 1.5 Technologies for Building Processors and Memory 24 1.6 Performance 28 1.7 The Power Wall 40 1.8 The Sea Change: The Switch from Uniprocessors to Multiprocessors 43 1.9 Real Stuff: Benchmarking the Intel Core i7 46 1.10 Fallacies and Pitfalls 49 1.11 Concluding Remarks 52 1.12 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 54 1.13 Exercises 54 1.1 Introduction Welcome to this book! We’re delighted to have this opportunity to convey the excitement of the world of computer systems. This is not a dry and dreary field, where progress is glacial and where new ideas atrophy from neglect. No! Computers are the product of the incredibly vibrant information technology industry, all aspects of which are responsible for almost 10% of the gross national product of the United States, and whose economy has become dependent in part on the rapid improvements in information technology promised by Moore’s Law. This unusual industry embraces innovation at a breath-taking rate. In the last 30 years, there have been a number of new computers whose introduction...
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...Nickolls NVIDIA John Oliver Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo Milos Prvulovic Georgia Tech Partha Ranganathan Hewlett-Packard Table of Contents Cover image Title page In Praise of Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware/Software Interface, Fifth Edition Front-matter Copyright Dedication Acknowledgments Preface About This Book About the Other Book Changes for the Fifth Edition Changes for the Fifth Edition Concluding Remarks Acknowledgments for the Fifth Edition 1. Computer Abstractions and Technology 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Eight Great Ideas in Computer Architecture 1.3 Below Your Program 1.4 Under the Covers 1.5 Technologies for Building Processors and Memory 1.6 Performance 1.7 The Power Wall 1.8 The Sea Change: The Switch from Uniprocessors to Multiprocessors 1.9 Real Stuff: Benchmarking the Intel Core i7 1.10 Fallacies and Pitfalls 1.11 Concluding Remarks 1.12 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 1.13 Exercises 2. Instructions: Language of the Computer 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Operations of the Computer Hardware 2.3 Operands of the Computer Hardware 2.4 Signed and Unsigned Numbers 2.5 Representing Instructions in the Computer 2.6 Logical Operations 2.7...
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...COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE DESIGNING FOR PERFORMANCE EIGHTH EDITION William Stallings Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data On File Vice President and Editorial Director: Marcia J. Horton Editor-in-Chief: Michael Hirsch Executive Editor: Tracy Dunkelberger Associate Editor: Melinda Haggerty Marketing Manager: Erin Davis Senior Managing Editor: Scott Disanno Production Editor: Rose Kernan Operations Specialist: Lisa McDowell Art Director: Kenny Beck Cover Design: Kristine Carney Director, Image Resource Center: Melinda Patelli Manager, Rights and Permissions: Zina Arabia Manager, Visual Research: Beth Brenzel Manager, Cover Visual Research & Permissions: Karen Sanatar Composition: Rakesh Poddar, Aptara®, Inc. Cover Image: Picturegarden /Image Bank /Getty Images, Inc. Copyright © 2010, 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 07458. Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department. Pearson Prentice Hall™ is a trademark of Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson® is a registered trademark of...
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...62118 0/nm 1/n1 2/nm 3/nm 4/nm 5/nm 6/nm 7/nm 8/nm 9/nm 1990s 0th/pt 1st/p 1th/tc 2nd/p 2th/tc 3rd/p 3th/tc 4th/pt 5th/pt 6th/pt 7th/pt 8th/pt 9th/pt 0s/pt a A AA AAA Aachen/M aardvark/SM Aaren/M Aarhus/M Aarika/M Aaron/M AB aback abacus/SM abaft Abagael/M Abagail/M abalone/SM abandoner/M abandon/LGDRS abandonment/SM abase/LGDSR abasement/S abaser/M abashed/UY abashment/MS abash/SDLG abate/DSRLG abated/U abatement/MS abater/M abattoir/SM Abba/M Abbe/M abbé/S abbess/SM Abbey/M abbey/MS Abbie/M Abbi/M Abbot/M abbot/MS Abbott/M abbr abbrev abbreviated/UA abbreviates/A abbreviate/XDSNG abbreviating/A abbreviation/M Abbye/M Abby/M ABC/M Abdel/M abdicate/NGDSX abdication/M abdomen/SM abdominal/YS abduct/DGS abduction/SM abductor/SM Abdul/M ab/DY abeam Abelard/M Abel/M Abelson/M Abe/M Aberdeen/M Abernathy/M aberrant/YS aberrational aberration/SM abet/S abetted abetting abettor/SM Abeu/M abeyance/MS abeyant Abey/M abhorred abhorrence/MS abhorrent/Y abhorrer/M abhorring abhor/S abidance/MS abide/JGSR abider/M abiding/Y Abidjan/M Abie/M Abigael/M Abigail/M Abigale/M Abilene/M ability/IMES abjection/MS abjectness/SM abject/SGPDY abjuration/SM abjuratory abjurer/M abjure/ZGSRD ablate/VGNSDX ablation/M ablative/SY ablaze abler/E ables/E ablest able/U abloom ablution/MS Ab/M ABM/S abnegate/NGSDX abnegation/M Abner/M abnormality/SM abnormal/SY aboard ...
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