...1) Non-governmental organisation: A non-governmental organisation is an organization that is neither a part of a government nor a conventional for-profit business. 2) Life expectancy at birth: Average number of years that a newborn is expected to live if current mortality rates continue to apply. 3) Objectives of WHO: To improve equity in health, reduce health risks, promote healthy lifestyles and settings, and respond to the underlying determinants of health. 4) Infrastructure: the basic, underlying framework or features of a system or organization. 5) The distribution of long lasting insecticide-treated nets and water filters to prevent malaria and water-borne diseases can significantly reduce the chances. 6) It is hard to treat those with malaria or diarrhoea in rural areas. This is because it is expensive to get aid to those areas due to the distance and the quantity needed. Also, in order to treat the diseases, quick action is needed which is made harder by the distance. 7) This entry gives the number of deaths of infants under one year old in a given year per 1,000 live births in the same year. This rate is often used as an indicator of the level of health in a country. 8) Infant mortality rate: total: 40.71 deaths/1,000 live births male: 45.33 deaths/1,000 live births female: 35.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2014 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 63.52 years male: 62.06 years female: 65.01 years (2014 est.) ...
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...Polydactyl in felines is probably one of my favorite disorder or mutation. I personally have three polydactyl and they are my inspiration for this discussion board topic. Polydactyl is a genetic disorder passed down from one parent that has an autosomal dominant gene. Having an autosomal dominant gene basically means that the normal genes are over powered, and the autosomal dominant gene takes over. While most cats have five toes on each front foot and four toes on each back. Polydactyl cats have extra toes on two or more of their feet. There are two main ways polydactyl cat’s front paws have been described, they have either mittens, or big foot. Mitten kitten front feet literally look like mittens with a thumb. Big foot kitties pretty much...
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...Kaposi sarcoma is a tumor cause by human herpes virus, also known as Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpes virus. It was originally described by Moritz Kaposi, a Hungarian dermatologist practicing at the University of Vienna in 1872. It became more widely known as one of the Aids-defining illnesses in the 1980s. The viral cause for this cancer was discovered in 1994. Although KS is now well-established to be caused by a viral infection, there is a widespread lack of awareness of this even among persons at risk for KSHV/HHV-8 infection. Kaposi’s sarcoma is a systemic disease that can present with cutaneous lesions with or without internal involvement. Four subtypes have been described: Classic KS, affecting middle aged men of Mediterranean and Jewish descent; African endemic KS; KS in iatrogenically immunosuppressed patients; and Aids-related K. The erythematous to violaceous cutaneous lesions seen in the KS have several morphologies; macular, patch, plaque, nodular, and exophytic. The cutaneous lesions can be solitary, localized or disseminated. KS can involve the oral cavity, lymph nodes, and viscera. Classic KS tends to be indolent, presenting with erythematous or violaceous patches on the lower extremities. African endemic KS and AIDS- related KS tend to be more aggressive. The Aids-related KS lesions often rapidly progress to plaques and nodules affecting the upper trunk, face, and oral mucosa. The diagnosis can be made with a tissue biopsy and, if clinically indicated, internal...
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...Evidence Based Practices for Infection Control in Immunocompromised Patients Diane Scott My rationale for choosing this subject is since many people in the hospital have a compromised immune system and they need to be protected from opportunistic infections. As a nursing student, I am responsible for making sure that I do not cause cross contamination. My question is “What are evidence based methods to prevent opportunistic infections in patients with a compromised immune system?” Since one of my sources addresses neutropenia, it is necessary to explain the disorder and how it relates to my question. Information about neutropenia was obtained from an article named Neutropenia: A Diagnostic Approach from the Western Journal of Medicine. The two authors are doctors and this article is based on evidence-based case review. Neutropenia is a somewhat common condition in which the level of neutrophils in the blood is abnormally low (Montgomery and Munshi, 2000, para. 1). An immune system becomes compromised when it does not have an adequate number of neutrophils and my question concerns patients who have a compromised immune system. Some causes of neutropenia include chemotherapy, viral or bacterial infections, adverse drug reactions and autoimmune disorders, such as AIDS (Montgomery and Munshi, 2000). Another source is a peer reviewed article named Neutropenia: State of the Knowledge Part II. The main author of this article is Nirenberg, but she had input...
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...PRINCIPLES OF DISEASE I. TERMINOLOGY * Pathology- the study of disease * Infection- the invasion or colonization of the body by a pathogenic microorganism * Disease- abnormal state of health as the result of an infection * If Pseudo aeruginosa infects the eye it can cause a disease termed Pseudomonas keratitis. The etiologic agent (cause) of this disease is: Microbial pathogenesis- the characteristics/traits the microbe has that leads to the disease. II. NORMAL MICROBIOTA * 1 x 10^13 human cells in our body * 1x10^14 bacterial cells on/in our body (permanent residence that under normal conditions do not cause disease) * Areas with normal Microbiota: 1. GI tract 2. Upper respiratory 3. Skin 4. Urogenital Tract * Areas that are relatively sterile: 1. The Nervous System * The blood brain barrier (blood vessel cerebrospinal fluid) 1) Endothelial cells 2) Astrocytes 3) Neurons *A structural impediment with restricted permeability * The lower respiratory tract * Upper respiratory- nasal hairs, mucous membrane, ciliary escalator, alveolar macrophages * In healthy person, microbes shouldn’t be able to make it down that far (past the upper respiratory) * The cardiovascular system (blood) * Septicemia- “blood poisoning,” growth of a pathogenic microorganism in the blood (non-specific term) * Bacteremia- bacteria in the blood * Toxemia- presence of toxin in...
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...Pharmaceuticals, Cincinnati, OH), ibandronate (Boniva; Roche Pharmaceuticals, Nutley, NY), zoledronate (Zometa; Novartis Pharmaceuticals, East Hanover, NJ), and pamidronate (Aredia; Novartis Pharmaceuticals). All 5 medications differ in their binding affinity to bone, potency, and duration.2–5 B Osteonecrosis of the jaws (ONJ) is a condition characterized by necrotic exposed bone in the jaws of patients receiving intravenous or oral bisphosphonate therapy. A review of the medical and dental literature reveals that the pathoetiology of ONJ remains unknown and there is no established link that bisphosphonates are the primary cause of this bone pathology. However, there is clinical evidence that Actinomyces may play a critical role in the pathogenesis of bisphosphonate-associated ONJ. Identification and a prolonged course of oral antimicrobial therapy may lead to complete resolution of this actinomycotic osteonecrosis. (Implant Dent...
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...HIV and AIDS * Presenter: MAHMOOD AHMED | | Learning Objectives: * Origin of HIV * Lifecycle of HIV-1. * CD4 cell and host defense system. * Natural history of HIV-1 disease. * Immune responses to HIV-1 and mechanisms of immune evasion by HIV. * Drugs * Nursing care Origins of HIV * HIV similar to virus found in monkeys and apes called SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus). * To identify ancestry of HIV scientists have sequenced various HIV strains and compared them to various SIV strains. * HIV-1 is most similar to an SIV found in chimps and HIV-2 is most similar to an SIV found in a monkey called the sooty mangabey. * HIV-1 occurs in three different subgroups (called M,N and O) and each appears closely related to a different chimpanzee SIV strain. * Thus, it appears that HIV-1 jumped to humans from chimps on at least 3 occasions. * Most likely the virus was acquired through killing and butchering chimps and monkeys in the “bushmeat” trade. When did HIV move to humans? * Sequence data from several group M strains has been used estimate when HIV moved from chimps to humans. * Korber et al. (2000) analyzed nucleotide sequence data for 159 samples of HIV-1 strain M. Constructed a phylogenetic tree showing relatedness to a common ancestor of the 159 samples. * Extrapolating based on rates of change of different strains suggests that subgroup M probably infected humans in the early 1930’s. | | Origins...
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...Cellular Structures and Pathogenicity Jennifer L. Wethington ITT Technical Institute Unit 2 Assignment 1 “Bacterial illness is a result of complex interactions between bacteria and the host. During evolution, humans developed many ways to protect themselves against bacterial pathogens. On the other hand, bacteria have developed strategies to evade, subvert or circumvent these defenses” (Sousa, 2003) “One of the most important characteristics of bacterial pathogenicity is the various strategies developed by prokaryotic organisms to use host molecules for their own benefit” (Sousa, 2003). “To accomplish this, bacteria have evolved elaborate control mechanisms to turn genes on and off, varying the transcriptional activator or protein repressors of systems that act at the structural level of the genetic material” (Sousa, 2003). “Without a doubt the most common and best studied of all prokaryotic motility structures is the bacterial flagellum. Composed of over 20 protein species with approximately another 30 proteins required for regulation and assembly, it is one of the most complex of all prokaryotic organelles” (Bardy, Ng, & Jarrell, 2003). “The bacterial flagellum is a rotary structure driven from a motor at the base, with the filament acting as a propeller. The flagellum consists of three major substructures: the filament, the hook and the basal body” (Bardy, Ng, & Jarrell, 2003). “One of the unusual variations on bacterial flagellation is the presence in...
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...Microscopic studies of the human body have found that microbial cells greatly outnumber somatic cells with National Institutes of Health estimating the figure to be around 90%; these either being bacterial, fungal or otherwise non-human. Even though DNA sequencing techniques have allowed scientists to analyse the structures components and functions of some of these normal microbiota, a large fraction of them still remain unstudied and so therefore we have not yet understood the full extent as to the influence that they have on our physiology and development thus how effective our immunity and nutrition is. Some of these microorganisms, known as microbiomes live in the body in areas covered by epithelial cells and exposed to the external environment (the skin, oral cavity respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, and the genitourinary system); these commensal microorganisms (normal microflora) such as bacteria, yeast and some virus co-evolved with their hosts, meaning they don’t cause any harm and are also beneficial. Commensal bacteria are important as they help us digest food, nutrient metabolism, tissue development as well as maintain a good mucosal immune system to prevent the colonization of bacterial pathogens in order to protect us from diseases. A variety of factors such as health, age, diet, lifestyle and hormonal state mean the numbers and types of these microorganisms present in and on the body continuously change and may disrupt the balance of heterogeneous organisms...
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...Pathophysiology of cellulitis in adults. Cellulitis, a bacterial infection of the skin and underlying tissue, is a common presentation to Emergency Departments (ED). The clinical spectrum of presentation can vary from local inflammation to diffuse inflammation involving a whole limb, to more severe, even life threatening presentations of necrotizing fascitis and associated sepsis. The rationale for choosing this condition is to enable me to efficiently differentiate between those cases that require immediate medical or surgical intervention and treatment and those that can be managed effectively as an outpatient, and to gain a keen understanding of the pathogenesis of the condition. The terms cellulitis and erysipelas are often used interchangeably and current usage tends to regard erysipelas as a form of cellulitis rather than a separate entity, making clear distinction difficult (Hay 2004, Kilburn et al 2010). Erysipelas affects the upper dermis and superficial lymphatics, with distinctly raised lesions and clear lines of demarcation between involved and uninvolved tissue. Cellulitis extends more deeply, involving the deeper dermis and subcutaneous fat and lacks the distinctive anatomical features of erysipelas. For the purpose of this essay I will be using the term ‘cellulitis’ to refer to both conditions. This essay will endeavor to discuss the incidence, its clinical presentation, risk factors, differential diagnosis, pathophysiology and classification according...
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...HIV Introduction H - Stands for Human. The virus is only found in humans and not in animals or insects. I - stands for Immunodeficiency – This means the virus weakens the bodies' ability to fight other infections. In time this leads to the group of illness called AIDS. V - Stands for Virus. It is an infectious agent that is non cellular. It is capable of self replicating only inside living cell. They are therefore parasitic because they rely on the host cell multiplication mechanism. AIDS A-Acquired an acquired condition is the one that is not inborn. AIDS patient acquire a condition that makes them not able to fight infections. I - Immune A normal human being has an immune system that helps them fight disease. The immune system involves structures such as the skin to keep away entry bacteria and other pathogens. The environment we live is full of micro organisms some living in the air, others water and others in food. Our bodies are well adopted to keep away these micro organisms. D – Deficiency. When it comes to HIV AIDS there is deficiency of adequate immunity. HIV virus infect immune cell (to be particular T-helper or CD4+ cells). T - Helper cells are very instrumental in the immune system thus when they are attacked by the virus they deplete in number. S - Syndrome: A variety of different symptoms and illness. The grouping of well recognized illness connected with AIDS makes a syndrome. TYPES OF HIV Two types of HIV are currently recognized: HIV-1, HIV-2. - Transmission...
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...THE NEWBORN WITH SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS A preterm infant is usually defined as a live-born infant born before the end of week 37 of gestation; another criterion is a weight of less than 2,500 grams (5lb 8oz) at birth I. INCIDENCE Occurs approximately 7% of live births of white infants, in Afro-American infants the rate is doubled 14% (Thilo & Rosenberg, 2003) CAUSES/FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH PRETERM BIRTHS 1. Low socio-economic status 2. Poor nutritional status 3. Lack of prenatal care 4. Multiple pregnancy 5. Previous early birth 6. Race (non-whites have higher incidence than whites) 7. Cigarette smoking 8. Age of the mother (highest incidence is in mothers younger than age 20) 9. Order of birth (early termination is highest in first pregnancies and in those beyond 4th pregnancies) 10. Closed spaced pregnancies 11. Abnormalities of mother’s reproductive system, such as intrauterine septum 12. Infections (especially UTI) 13. Obstetric complications (PROM, premature separation of placenta 14. Early induction of labor 15. Elective cesarean birth ASSESSMENT A. History – detailed pregnancy history will reveal reason for the preterm birth; be careful not to convey disapproval of reported pregnancy behaviors such as smoking, etc. Being overburdened with guilt may be detrimental to her attempts to bond with her infant B. Appearance Criteria Posture Premature infant Resting posture – characterized by very little, if any, flexion in upper extremities and only partial flexion of...
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...INTRODUCTION Infection remains the main cause of morbidity and mortality in man, particularly in developing areas where it is associated with poverty and overcrowding.In the developed world increasing prosperity, universal immunization and antibiotics have reduced the prevalence of infectious disease. However, antibiotic-resistant strains of microorganisms and diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease ,avian influenza and severe acute respiratory syndrome(SARS) have emerged. In the developing world successes such as the eradication of smallpox have been balanced or outweighed by the new plagues. Infectious diseases cause nearly 25% of all human deaths. Two billion people one-third of the world’s population are infected with tuberculosis (TB),500 million people catch malaria every year, and 200 million are infected with schistosomiasis. 39.5 million people are living with HIV/AIDS, with 4.3 million new HIV infections in 2006 (65% in sub-Saharan Africa). The eight Millennium Development Goals (MDG) hope to be achieved by 2015. These are: eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, universal primary education, gender equality and empowerment of women, reduction in child mortality,improvement in maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS,malaria and other diseases, ensuring environment sustainability and developing global partnership for development. DEFINITION INFECTION An infection is the entry and multiplication of an infections...
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...September 2005 Project Portfolio Management at XYZ Pharma Early morning, Monday 29th August 2005. John Smith, head of portfolio management and strategic planning, was paging through the slides he had prepared for the Portfolio Management Board (PMB) meeting which would start at 9 am, and which was scheduled to last until Friday. “We have been preparing this meeting for weeks”, he thought, “and it seems the PMB has some tough decisions to make”. The PMB of XYZ Pharma, the pharmaceutical division of XYZ, one of the world’s leading companies in the life science sector, convenes yearly in August to review the composition of the research and development (R&D) project portfolio. It also meets on a monthly basis to monitor the project portfolio and make decisions regarding new developments. According to John Smith, “The PMB is an important decision making body because it shapes the future of the company by determining its product pipeline”. The PMB members include the CEO of XYZ, the CEO of XYZ Pharma, the heads of the different business units, the heads of Development, Research, Global Marketing and Strategic Planning, the regional heads for the US, Europe and Japan and the functional managers for Regulation, Clinical, Licensing, Technical Research and Development, and Patents. The portfolio group, led by John Smith, had analysed the project portfolio carefully and had highlighted several potential threats that required action. According to John, “There will be an indepth discussion...
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...September 2005 Project Portfolio Management at XYZ Pharma Early morning, Monday 29th August 2005. John Smith, head of portfolio management and strategic planning, was paging through the slides he had prepared for the Portfolio Management Board (PMB) meeting which would start at 9 am, and which was scheduled to last until Friday. “We have been preparing this meeting for weeks”, he thought, “and it seems the PMB has some tough decisions to make”. The PMB of XYZ Pharma, the pharmaceutical division of XYZ, one of the world’s leading companies in the life science sector, convenes yearly in August to review the composition of the research and development (R&D) project portfolio. It also meets on a monthly basis to monitor the project portfolio and make decisions regarding new developments. According to John Smith, “The PMB is an important decision making body because it shapes the future of the company by determining its product pipeline”. The PMB members include the CEO of XYZ, the CEO of XYZ Pharma, the heads of the different business units, the heads of Development, Research, Global Marketing and Strategic Planning, the regional heads for the US, Europe and Japan and the functional managers for Regulation, Clinical, Licensing, Technical Research and Development, and Patents. The portfolio group, led by John Smith, had analysed the project portfolio carefully and had highlighted several potential threats that required action. According to John, “There will be...
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