The intellectual development of a working-class child may differ to that of a middle-class child. This refers to the development of their thinking and reasoning skills i.e. solving problems and using ideas and concepts.

Working-class homes may not have the books, educational toys, and activities that would stimulate a child’s intellectual development. Children from these homes may start school without the developed intellectual skills needed to progress.

Douglas (1964) found that working-class pupils scored lower on ability tests than middle-class pupils. He argues that this is because working-class parents are less likely to support the intellectual development of the child.

In support, Bernstein and Young (1967) had similar conclusions. They found that the way mothers think about and choose toys influences on the child’s intellectual development. Middle-class mothers are more likely to choose toys that encourage thinking and reasoning skills to prepare children for school.

Bernstein (1957) distinguishes between two types of speech code: restricted, where it has limited vocabulary and is based on short, grammatically incorrect sentences, typically used by the middle class; and elaborated, which has a wider vocabulary and has longer, more complex sentences, typically used by the middle-classes.

The elaborated code is the language used by teachers, textbooks, and exams which puts the middle class-pupils at a disadvantage. It is taken as the ‘correct’ way to speak and write and, in Bernstein’s view, it is a more effective tool for the essential skills in education. Working-class pupils, who lack the elaborated code, are likely to feel excluded from school and to be less successful.

Bernstein (1975)

Unlike most other cultural deprivation theorists, Bernstein recognises that both the school and home influences a child’s achievement. He argues