...Pacemakers for the Brain Payton Jackson University of Louisiana at Monroe When hearing the word pacemaker, the first thought that comes to one’s mind is a cardiac pacemaker. With a pacemaker for the brain, the wires are implanted in the brain instead of heart. Some of the things that brain pacemakers have been seen to do with medical and technological advances are reducing seizures in people with epilepsy, controlling the tremors of people with Parkinson’s disease, the testing for treatments of bipolar disorder and depression. The modern medical and technological advances that have been made contributes to all of those things. A brain pacemaker, also known as a neurostimulator, is implanted through a surgical procedure called deep brain stimulation. This is an invasive, chronically implanted device that uses electrical stimulation to alleviate dysfunctions of the brain (Johansson, Garwicz, Kanje, Halldenius, Schouenborg, 2015). There are three components to this pacemaker which are a lead, an extension, and an implantable pulse generator. According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (2015), “the lead (also called an electrode)—a thin, insulated wire—is inserted through a small opening in the skull and implanted in the brain. The tip of the electrode is positioned within the specific brain area. The extension is an insulated wire that is passed under the skin of the head, neck, and shoulder, connecting the lead to the implantable pulse generator...
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...Multiple Sclerosis (MS) 1. What does MS stand for? * Multiple sclerosis 2. What is MS caused by? * Immunologic: MS is considered an immune-mediated disease as the immune system malfunctions and attacks the CNS * Genetic: Several genes are believed to play a role in MS. Your chance of developing MS is slightly higher if a close relative has the disease. If one parent has MS, the risk of their children getting the disease is estimated to be between 2% and 5%. Scientists believe that people with MS are born with a genetic susceptibility to react to certain environmental agents. An autoimmune response is triggered when they encounter these agents. * Environmental: Vitamin D benefits the function of the immune system. People who live near the equator are exposed to more sunlight. As a result, their bodies produce more vitamin D. Since MS is considered an immune-mediated disease, vitamin D and sunlight exposure may be linked. * Infections: Viruses are known to cause inflammation and a breakdown of myelin. Therefore, it’s possible that a virus could trigger MS. Several viruses and bacteria are being investigated to determine if they’re involved in the development of MS. These include: * Measles virus * Human herpes virus-6 (HHV-6) * Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) 3. What are the symptoms of MS? * Muscular spasms and problems with – weakness, coordination, balance and functioning of the arms and legs * Fatigue –heat sensitivity *...
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...running cycle controlled by an endogenous pacemaker working as a body clock which is internal to our biological system, such as the suprachiasmatic nucleus which receives information about light and dark directly from the retina of the eye and the pineal gland, which releases melatonin in relation to fading light. Melatonin acts upon the raphe nuclei which in turns produces serotonin, a chemical with an inhibitory or slowing down effect on the central nervous system. Also, circadian rhythms can be controlled by exogenous zeitgebers i.e. external time givers, such as light, temperature and social cues. Another circadian rhythm is body temperature, which is at its lowest at around 4.30 am. The core body temperature also lowers after lunch. Evaluation AO2 Siffre (1962)- He spent two months in an underground cave, without time cues and emerged on the 27th of September, but he thought it was the 20th of August. This suggests that the absence of exogenous zeitgebers, affected his perception of time, therefore giving evidence that endogenous pacemakers control our circadian rhythms. He then carried out further research to see if the absence of exogenous zeitgebers would affect his sleep- wake cycle. He spent six months in a cave, with no time cues, but artificial lights. He settled into a sleep wake cycle of around 25 hours. This therefore gives reliability and validity to the view that circadian rhythms are set by endogenous pacemakers, and are not dependent on the exogenous cue...
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...Describe and evaluate research into circadian rhythms (8+16) Research into circadian rhythms has assessed the effects of isolating participants from external time cues (exogenous zeitgebers) on our 24 hour cycles, and suggesting that an internal body clock (endogenous pacemaker) creates a free running sleep/wake cycle rhythm of 25 hours. Siffre (1975) * Case study of his own experiences in an underground cave for 2 months. Without any exogenous zeitgebers such as light or cues to guide him, his sleep/wake cycle generally adjusted to a 25 hour cycle, though sometimes changing dramatically up to 48 hours. Aschoff and Weaver (1976) * Designed a temporal isolation study by placing participants in an underground ww2 bunker without an environmental or time cues. * They found that the free running cycle persisted with a sleep wake cycle of 25 hours, sometimes increasing to 29. Weakness into research of circadian rhythms * Lack internal validity. * They removed natural light sources, artificial light from torches and cameras have been shown to reset the endogenous rhythms, thus interfering as an extraneous variable. Exemplified through Czeisler et al (1999) * Altered participants’ circadian rhythms down to 22 hours and up to 28 only using dim lighting to alter his release of melatonin from the pineal gland. * Findings do not reflect true isolation and have lower internal validity, so his rhythm may not have adjusted so well if he had been truly...
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...article that was somehow related to the class. I had to read the research/article thoroughly, write a three to four page research paper and present my findings in front of the class. At first I wasn’t so eager about the assignment, because not only I hate writing but also reading. However by doing these research papers helped me shape my career aspiration and also helped prepare me for college level research papers. The first article I read that grabbed my attention was “Thoughts Control Robotic Hands”. The article talked about how a group of researchers at the University of Pittsburgh have implanted an array of electrodes into the motor cortex of a patient’s brain enabling...
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...The heart pumps the blood throughout the body. How It’s Connected to Other Parts in the Body It supplies oxygen and nutrients to our bodies by working with the respiratory system. At the same time, the circulatory system helps carry waste and carbon dioxide out of the body. Hormones — produced by the endocrine system— are also transported through the blood in the circulatory system. Pacemaker: The pacemaker is a group of cells in the right atrium. By sending a signal that makes heart muscle cells contract, the pacemaker regulates the beating of the heart Right Atrium: The right atrium receives blood from the body. The blood is low in oxygen and high in the waste product carbon dioxide Right Ventricle: When the right ventricle contracts, it pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs Aorta: The largest blood vessel in the body, the aorta carries blood from the left ventricle to the body Left Atrium: Oxygen-rich blood moves from the lungs into the left atrium. Left Ventricle: the left ventricle pumps oxygen-rich blood to all parts of the...
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...Discuss the role of endogenous pacemakers in the control of one or more circadian rhythms (8 + 16 marks) Endogenous pacemakers are the internal biological clocks that manage our rhythms. In humans, the main biological clock is the suprachiasmatic nucleus also referred to as the SCN which is a small cluster of neurons located in the hypothalamus in the brain. This is what controls circadian rhythms of sleep- waking, body temperature and feeding patterns, the SNC is located above the optic chiasm therefore when light hits the retina it transfers through the optic nerve to the SCN which stimulates the release of hormones such as cortisol and melatonin in the pineal gland, maintaining our sleep- wake cycle. It’s been suggested from a evolutionary psychologists that endogenous pacemakers have an adaptive value in controlling biological rhythms such as the sleep- wake cycle, therefore suggesting it aids survival. This idea is supported by studies from psychologists such as Decoursey who found that removing the SCN in 30 chipmunks and returning them to their natural habitat, proved costly for their survival. They found that after 80 days significantly more chipmunks had died compared to control group with normal functioning SCN’s. Therefore, this suggests that EP, most importantly the SCN, indeed aids survival, as the absence of this important EP proved detrimental for the survival of the chipmunks. Moreover, another study that supports this idea is the study of free running...
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...Circadian rhythms Biological rhythms are cyclical behaviours repeated periodically and controlled by endogenous pacemakers (internal biological clocks) or exogenous zeitgebers (external cues like light, seasonal changes, temperature, social cues). Circadian rhythms are biological cycles lasting 24hours like the sleep/wake cycle, which is facilitated by time-checks and regular events such as meal times (external cues). The main internal biological clock in mammals appears to be located in the hypothalamus, which is responsible for “motivation” and is named the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). The SCN has an inbuilt circadian firing pattern as when damaged in rats the circadian rhythm involving sleeping and feeding patterns has been disrupted (Zucker et al). The SCN regulates the secretion of melatonin in the pineal gland (another endogenous pacemaker which produces melatonin which affects sleep) and is also connected to the retina of the eye through a separate pathway. This highlights the indirect link between exogenous zeitgebers such as light and how melatonin production from the Pineal gland (endogenous pacemakers) works together with the SCN to maintain a rhythm. Light can also reach the brain via other means as Campbell et al demonstrated resetting the circadian rhythm through shining light on participant’s knee’s. This shows other secondary oscillators exist throughout the body maintaining circadian rhythms through the use of exogenous zeitgebers. Core body temperature...
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...Parkinson’s disease Approximately 60,000 Americans are diagnosed with Parkinson's disease each year, and this number does not reflect the thousands of cases that go undetected. Parkinson's disease is a disorder that affects nerve cells in the part of the brain controlling muscle movement. Parkinson's is progressive, meaning the signs and symptoms become worse over time. Although Parkinson's may eventually be disabling, the disease often progresses gradually, and most people have many years of productive living after a diagnosis. We will be going through the organ system Parkinson’s affects as well as the signs, symptoms, and treatements. Organ System Affected With Parkinson’s The major organ system affected by Parkinson’s is the nervous system. The nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body. It is the center of all mental activity including thought, learning, and memory. Together with the endocrine system, the nervous system is responsible for regulating and maintaining homeostasis. Like other systems in the body, the nervous system is composed of organs, principally the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and ganglia. These, in turn, consist of various tissues, including nerve, blood, and connective tissue. Together these carry out the complex activities of the nervous system. The various activities of the nervous system can be grouped together as three general, overlapping functions, sensory, integrative, and motor. Functions of...
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...recumbence” (Stewart, 2012). The patient spent more than 20 years with torture and life threatening symptom no doctor could identify. The patient was born in southern Minnesota. When she turn to puberty, her body change in ways she never expected. She was felling weak, fatigue, dizzy, and lightheaded. She tried to manage her symptom during adolescence with different over the counter medication. After celebrating her 18th birthday, she decide to leave Minnesota and went to Buffalo Los Angeles. As soon as she touches California a new symptom emerge. She was feeling a migraine symptom and affects her to focus. When the migraine increase she did appointment with neurologist. The doctor order CT scan to see if there is any unusual thing in her brain. The result came normal. She went to seek treatment with various doctors who were not able to explain to her the cause of her migraine. Then she left her work and return to Minnesota. This disease has had a huge impact on her everyday quality of life as well as her family and friends. It was a daily fight and struggle. After months, when her symptom improved in Minnesota, she decided to move Sunny Florida. As soon as she gets to Florida, her symptom came back. She said this time was 10 times worse than ever. Despite her pain she decided to stay and work full time. Even though, she work full time she was struggling to manage her finance because of her chronic disease....
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...triggers a response that is commonly referred to as our 'fight or flight response.' When faced with a dangerous situation, our body needs to decide whether to stay and face the problem, or run away. So, In order to make our body work as efficiently as possible, norepinephrine causes several changes in our body function. These include the following: 1. An increase in the amount of oxygen going to our brain - this helps us think clearer and faster. 2. An increase in our heart rate - this pumps more blood around our body, helping our muscles work faster and more efficiently. 3. An increase in glucose (or sugar) release - this additional sugar gives our muscles something to 'feed on,' which helps them work better and faster. 4. An increase in breathing rate - when we breathe faster, we are delivering more oxygen to the body and brain. This helps our entire body work better. 5. A shutting down of metabolic processes - shutting down processes, like digestion and growth, allows blood and energy that would normally go to these functions to be shunted to our muscles and brain. Receptors Like many biologically active substances, norepinephrine exerts its effects by binding to and activating receptors located on the surface of cells. Two norepinephrine receptors have been identified, known as alpha and beta...
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...Epilepsy involves seizure activity caused by a group of CNS neurons displaying hyper-excitability. During these seizures, there is a disturbance of the electrical conduction system of the brain interfering with consciousness, motor skills, and sensation. In a healthy nervous system a movement of sodium and calcium through specific channels generates action potentials. Neurotransmitters are released either causing excitation or inhibition. Epilepsy involves changes in sodium channels, calcium influx, or sometimes a reduction of GABA. Epilepsy is considered to be the result of the interactions of genetic mutations with environmental factors that cause abnormalities in the brain conduction system, an imbalance of neurotransmitters, or the development...
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...The Consequences of Disrupting Biological Rhythms All living organisms experience rhythmic changes, which tend to coincide with seasonal or daily environmental changes. These rhythms are known as biological rhythms, which include circadian, ultradian and infradian types. All biological rhythms are controlled by two different factors - internally (endogenous) through nature, and externally (exogenous) through nurture. Most organisms have internal biological clocks, called endogenous pacemakers. The main endogenous pacemaker in circadian rhythms is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a small bundle of nerves in the hypothalamus, as suggested by Morgan (1995), and Kalat (1998). Kalat suggested that low levels of light lead to an electrical stimulant, which activates the pineal gland in the SCN, located in the centre of the brain, to secrete a hormone called melatonin, which causes sleepiness. Its production of melatonin varies with periods of light and darkness in the environment, and it obtains this information about light in the environment by means of nerve pathways originating in the eyes. Therefore the main exogenous zeitgeber ('time-giver') that controls circadian rhythms is therefore light. Research that suggests the SCN is the main endogenous factor for circadian rhythms comes from Morgan in 1995. His aim was to determine whether the SCN in hamsters is linked to the dissappearance of their circadian rhythms. He removed the SCN from hamsters and transplanted an...
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...MRI examination, there is no preparation or dietary/NPO requirements. Special Nursing Considerations Patients cannot have halter monitors, telemetry units, nerve stimulation units or a IV pump in the magnet room Clothing Requirements No metal can enter the exam room, clothing with metal snaps or pins should not be worn. Jewelry, watches, rings etc should be left in a locker. Hairpins and dentures, should also be removed and left in a locker or outside the exam room Heavy facial makeup should not be worn as it may create artifacts on the image. Labs Labs are not required unless you have a history of impaired kidney function. However, allergy history records are necessary for contrast studies. Contraindication If you have a heart pacemaker or pacing wires, cerebal aneurysm or Swan Ganz catheter you cannot have an MRI under any circumstances! Pregnancy is a contraindication and will require patient consent for an MRI. All other history of metal fragments in the eye require orbit screening x-rays prior to your MRI. All other history of implants or surgery must be indicated to the technologist. The make and model of implants may be necessary (i.e. ear implants, heart valve replacements). The Exam Your exam will last between 30 and 60 minutes. You will need to lie still for periods of 3 to 10 minutes at a time while the series of images are collected. You can breathe freely during this time. You may, in some cases, be allowed to move slightly between scans, but not so much...
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...For example, testing on dogs has lead to discovering insulin, which helps people with diabetes. One of the biggest breakthroughs was the Polio vaccine, which was created to help treat Poliomyelitis. Back in 1988, there were 350,000 Poliomyelitis victims, however, as of 2016, there were only 27 people that had Poliomyelitis. That’s only one of the many other diseases that were cured with the help of animal testing. That’s only one of the many conditions that animal testing has helped find a cure for and help scientists further understand these conditions. Some of these conditions include childhood leukemia, breast cancer, brain injury, malaria, tuberculosis, and hepatitis B. Animal testing has contributed to the creation of many substitutes for major organs or parts necessary for someone to live. Some of the substitutes created include pacemakers, anesthetics, and cardiac valve...
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