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Pemicu 2

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Unfamiliar terms: * Diabetes mellitus Suatu kelompok penyakit heterogen (sindrom) yang disebabkan oleh peningkatan abnormal kandungan glukosa dalam darah * Genetika ilmu yang mempelajari sebab, perkembangan, penyebaran, warisan perbedaan sifat individu, dan efek gen pada berbagai penyakit. * Asma Suatu penyakit peradangan dari saluran paru-paru, ditandai dengan penyempitan dan penyumbatan saluran pernafasan yang menyebabkan nafas tersengal-sengal dan pendeknya pengambilan nafas.
PEWARISAN SIFAT (MENDEL, NON MENDEL, MODIFIKASI) * HUKUM MENDEL * Dikemukakan oleh Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884). * dibagi menjadi 2: 1. Hukum Mendel I (Hukum Segregasi) 2. Hukum Mendel II (Hukum Asortasi) * Hukum Mendel I * Dapat dipelajari dari persilangan monihibrid. * Persilangan monohibrid : keturunan yang berasal dari kedua induknya , yang mempunyai satu perbedaan sifat. * Hukum Mendel II * Dapat dipelajari dari persilangan dihibrid. * Persilangan dihibrid: keturunan yang berasal dari kedua induknya, yang mempunyai dua perbedaan sifat. * MODIFIKASI MENDEL ( Penyimpangan Semu Hukum Mendel) * Atavisme (Interaksi Gen) * Munculnya suati sifat sebagai akibat interaksi dari beberapa gen. * Contoh: sifat genetis pada jengger ayam * Memberikan ratio F2= 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 * Polimeri ( Aditif/Poligen) * Merupakan bentuk interaksi gen yang bersifat kumulatif (saling menambah). * Polimeri terjadi akibat interaksi antara dua gen atau lebih, sehingga disebut juga sifat gen ganda. * Contoh: biji gandum * Perbandingan = 1 : 4 : 6 : 4 : 1 * Kriptomeri * Sifat gen dominan yang tersembunyi jika gen dominan tersebut berdiri sendiri. * Jika gen dominan tersebut berinteraksi dengan gen dominan lainnya, akan muncul sifat gen dominan yang sebelumnya tersembunyi. * Contoh: bunga Linaria maroccana * Memberikan rasio F2= 9 : 3 : 4 * Epistasis * Gen epistasis : gen yang sifatnya mempengaruhi (menghalangi) gen lain. * Gen hipostasis : gen yang dipengaruhi (dihalangi). * Epistasis dibagi menjadi 6 jenis: 1. Epistasis resesif * Gen dengan alel homozigot resesif mempengaruhi gen lain.
Rasio F2= 9 : 3 : 4 2. Epistasis dominan * Gen dengan alel dominan menutupi kerja gen lain. * Rasio F2= 12 : 3 : 1 3. Epistasis dominan-resesif * Gen dominan dari pasangan gen I epistasis terhadap pasangan gen II yang bukan alelnya, sementara gen resesif dari pasangan gen II juga epistasis terhadap pasangan gen I. * Rasio F2= 13 : 3 4. Epistasis resesif ganda (Komplementer) * Interaksi beberapa gen yang saling melengkapi. * Contoh: bunga Lathyrus odoratus * Rasio F2= 9 : 7 5. Epistasis dominan ganda * Peristiwa dua gen dominan atau lebih yang bekerja untuk munculnya satu fenotip tunggal. * Salah satu gen dominan atau bersama-sama gen dominan lain akan menyebabkan munculnya fenotip dominan. * Sebaliknya, jika dalam genotip tidak ada gen yang dominan satupun, fenotip resesif akan muncul. * Contoh: tanaman kantong gembala * Rasio F2= 15 : 1 6. Epistasis resesif ganda tak lengkap * Rasio F2= 9 : 6 : 1 * NON MENDEL * Bersifat: -penurunan melalui sitoplasmik -maternal (gen lebih banyak dari ibu) - ekstra nukleus (dari DNA mithokondria) - non kromosomal (tidak ada segragasi, karena terdiri dari untaian tunggal, tidakm dapat dibuat peta kromosom) -uni parental (lebih banyak dari ibu/ betina)

GAMBARAN KROMOSOM
Kromosom Pria dan Wanita
Setiap manusia memiliki 23 pasang kromosom, 22 dari pasangan-pasangan tersebut(autosom) adalah pasangan yang bercocokan baik pada pria maupun wanita, kecuali pasangan ke 23(kromosom sex).
Pada wanita pasangan ke 23 terdiri dari 2 kromosom X. Pada pria, terdiri dari 1 kromosom X dan 1 kromosom Y. Kromosom Y tersebut menentukan kelamin laki-laki pada manusia, kromosom terebut memiliki gen-gen yang diperlukan untuk membentuk testis dan memproduksi sperma.
Kromosom X berbentuk submetasentrik agak meta sedangkan kromosom Y berbentuk akrosentrik.

MUTASI * Mutasi = perubahan materi genetik (DNA) yang dapat diwariskan secara genetis pada keturunannya. * Agen yang menyebabkan mutasi : mutagen * Makhluk hidup yang mengalami mutasi : mutan * Mutasi adalah perubahan genotipe yang dapat mengakibatkan perubahan sifat atau karakter dan perubahan pada fenotipe. * Bila mutasi mengenai sel kelamin, disebut mutasi genetik dan dapat diturunkan kepada keturunannya * Bila mutasi mengenai sel somatik (sel tubuh), disebut mutasi somatik dan tidak dapat diturunkan kepada keturunannya.
JENIS MUTASI 1. Mutasi Genom * Adalah mutasi yang terjadi pada satu set kromosom yang menyebabkan kelainan pada jumlah kromosom. * Contoh:
a. Poliploidi » perubahan yang menyebabkan semua kromosom homolog dalam genom memiliki lebih dari dua set kromosom. Contohnya: * Triploid (3n) » sel tubuh (sel somatik) mempunyai tiga set kromosom. Sifat ini dimanfaatkan untuk buah-buahan tanpa biji
Tetraploid (4n) » sel tubuh (sel somatik)
b. Aneuploidi » keadaan dimana satu atau lebih kromosom bertambah atau berkurang dari jumlah normalnya. Contohnya: * Nulisomik (2n-2) » suatu organisme kehilangan dua kromosom sejenis. * Monosomik (2n-1) » suatu organisme kehilangan satu kromosom. * Trisomik (2n+1) » organisme yang memiliki kelebihan satu kromosom. * Tetrasomik (2n+2) » organisme yang memiliki kelebihan dua kromosom sejenis.
2.MUTASI KROMOSOM
Adalah perubahan struktur kromosom dengan hilangnya atau bertambahnya salah satu segmen kromosom. * Ada 4 macam mutasi kromosom: * Delesi » peristiwa hilangnya suatu segmen kromosom karena patah * Duplikasi » peristiwa penggandaan diri pada kromosom * Inversi » peristiwa pembalikan segmen kromosom * Translokasi » peristiwa pindahnya potongan segmen kromosom ke potongan kromosom lain yang bukan homolognya.
3. Mutasi Gen (Mutasi Titik) * Adalah perubahan urutan basa pada DNA yang mengakibatkan terjadinya perubahan kodon dan akhirnya mengubah urutan asam amino pada polipeptida yang terbentuk. * Bila mutasi mengenai sel kelamin, maka akan bersifat hereditas, sedangkan bila mengenai sel somatik, maka perubahan fenotipenya sulit dideteksi. * Karena ada perubahan basa DNA maka replikasi dan transkripsi akan terganggu di tempat kerusakan tersebut. * Ketika proses translasi tidak terbaca, satu molekul asam amino tidak terbentuk atau berubah, dan menimbulkan perubahan genotipe. * Ada 4 jenis mutasi gen: 1. Point Mutation * Adalah mutasi yang melibatkan perubahan tempat spesifik dalam suatu gen, termasuk substitusi, delesi, dan inversi pasangan basa. * Ada dua macam point mutation:
a. Mutasi transisi » basa purin/pirimidin menjadi basa purin/pirimidin lainnya
b. Mutasi transversi » purin jadi pirimidin/pirimidin jadi purin 2. Missense Mutation * Adalah mutasi yang terjadi karena perubahan atau substitusi basa ke-2 sehingga urutan asam amino berubah dan informasi genetik juga berubah.
3. Nonsense Mutation * Adalah mutasi dimana kodon yang bermutasi berubah menjadi kodon nonsense (kodon stop), sehingga proses translasi berhenti. * Yang termasuk kodon nonsense: a) UAA b) UAG c) UGA
4. Frameshift Mutation * Adalah mutasi yang merubah “pembacaan” dari mRNA. Disebabkan oleh adanya delesi (pengurangan satu/beberapa basa)atau insersi (penambahan satu/beberapa basa) pasangan basa sehingga menyebabkan hilangnya/masuknya satu basa sehingga kodon pun berubah.
MUTAGEN
* Faktor penyebab mutasi dapat dikelompokkan menjadi dua berdasarkan kejadiannya, yaitu: * Mutasi alami » mutasi yang terjadi di alam dengan sendirinya, berlangsung sangat lambat dan jaranbg terjadi. * Faktor penyebab mutasi alami: 1. Sinar ultraviolet 2. Sinar radioaktif dari alam 3. Pancaran sinar kosmis/sinar luar angkasa 4. Radiasi internal dari bahan radioaktif yg mungkin masuk ke tubuh akibat pencmaran radioaktif melalui makanan/ saluran pernapasan * Mutasi buatan » perubahan materi genetik yang dilakukan oleh manusia * Faktor penyebab mutasi buatan: 5. Radiasi oleh sinar, misal sinar X, sinar ultraviolet, sinar α, β, γ 6. Zat-zat kimia, misal gas metana, kafein, formaldehida, kolkisin, obat-obatan, pengawet makanan, asap rokok, dan pestisida.
DAMPAK MUTASI * Mutasi yang menguntungkan : pada umumnya terjadi pada hewan dan tumbuhan>> menghasilkan varietas baru yang lebih unggul. Contoh: padi hasil radiasi lebihn tahan terhadap hama, lebih cepat masa panennya, lebih banyak menghasilkan bulir padi, dsb. * Mutasi yang merugikan : munculnya kelainan-kelainan genetik
PENYAKIT GENETIKA * Sickle Cell Anemia : terjadinya m,utasi pada asamm amino ke-6 rantai beta sehuingga menyebabkan kelainan sel darah merah yang menurun menyebabkan sel darah merah berbentuk sabit. * Cystyc Fibrosis :penyakit yang disebabkan mutasi gen CTFR(Cystyc Fibrosis Transmembrane Reguator) sehingga terjadi gangguan keseimbangan garan oada sel dan terbentuk mucus yang lengket. * Hemophilia: penyakit dimana pembekuan darah tidak normal,sehingga pendarahan terjadi lebih lama dan bisa terjadi pendarahan di bagian dalam tubuh, disebabkan pewarisan terkait kromosom X resesif. * Diabetes Melitus: meningkatnya kadar gula darah yang terjadi karena sekresi insulin,sekresi insulin, atau keduanya. * Huntington’s disease: kelainan dimana sel saraf pada suatu bagian di otak mengalami degenerasi, disebabkan kelainan pada kromosom 4.
Asthma: penyakit pernapasan kronik dimana saluran pernapasan menyempti, menyebabkan pengencangan dada, sesak nafas, dan batuk-batuk. Tidak bisa disembuhkan secara total.

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