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Perekonomian Indonesia

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PROSES AKUMULASI TRANSFORMASI STRUKTURAL
Transformasi struktural, terbagi menjadi 3 proses yaitu: Akumulasi, Alokasi, dan Distribusi. Pada paper kali ini kami akan menganalisa mengenai proses akumulasi yang terjadi di Indonesia dan Brazil. Proses akumulasi adalah proses pemanfaatan sumber daya untuk meningkatkan produksi ekonomi, seiring dengan peningkatan pendapatan per kapita masyarakatnya. Variabel-variabel yang digunakan dalam proses akumulasi ialah :

1. Investasi (Akumulasi Modal Fisik, % terhadap GDP)
Apabila pendapatan per kapita meningkat, maka tabungan domestik dan investasi domestik pun meningkat pula, hal ini dikarenakan semakin banyak masyarakat yang melakukan saving dan investing karena pendapatan mereka pun semakin banyak. Sebaliknya, apabila pendapatan per kapita meningkat maka aliran modal masuk mengalami penurunan. Hal ini dikarenakan, negara tersebut merasa sudah memiliki cukup tabungan atau investasi domestik, sehingga mengurangi jumlah aliran modal yang masuk dari luar negeri ke dalam negeri.

a. Foreign Direct Investment
Peningkatan rasio investasi terhadap GDP ( InvestmentGDP) dapat disebabkan karena meningkatnya Investasi Asing (Foreign Investment) dan Pinjaman Asing (Foreign Loan).

Berikut ini adalah data Foreign Direct Investment Indonesia negara Indonesia dan Brazil.
FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (%GDP)

Country Name | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | World | 1,53 | 1,67 | 3,00 | 3,40 | 4,39 | 3,56 | 1,96 | 2,08 | 2,33 | Brazil | 1,84 | 2,74 | 1,75 | 1,78 | 3,26 | 3,07 | 1,94 | 2,49 | 2,89 | Indonesia | -0,25 | 0,74 | 2,92 | 1,35 | 1,60 | 1,83 | 0,90 | 1,94 | 2,14 |
Apabila diperhatikan, trend FDI Brazil lebih meningkat dibandingkan dengan FDI Indonesia. Tingkat investasi yang lebih tinggi menunjukkan adanya peningkatan investment terhadap PDB. Peningkatan ini ditunjukkan dengan meningkatnya jumlah gedung, penyediaan listrik, jalanan dan public transportation. Public transportation yang semakin banyak juga mendukung distribusi barang produksi.
Apabila dilihat, FDI di Indonesia bersifat lebih volatile dibandingkan dengan Brazil. Salah satu hal penyebabnya ialah karena infrastruktur Indonesia yang masih belum begitu baik dalam menyokong bisnis dan industri jika dibandingkan dengan negara lain, atau bahkan negara South East Asia lainnya. Sedangkan, FDI di Brazil lebih terlihat stabil jika dibandingkan dengan Indonesia.
Infrastruktur di Brazil sudah lebih berkembang daripada Indonesia, terutama untuk transpoertasi udara yang sudah well-developed. Untuk jalan raya dan pelabuhan, pemerintah sedang menanamkan modal besar untuk memperbaiki infrastrukturnya. Tetapi, dari total proyek yang dicanangkan pemerintah untuk perbaikan infrastruktur Brazil hingga tahun 2014 (Brazil adalah host piala dunia), terdapat 19 proyek yang belom berjalan. Hal ini disebabkan karena antara lain karena aksi pemerintah yang lambat dalam privatisasi (banyak proyek pembangunan infrastruktur dilakukan oleh swasta), ketidakpastian aturan, dan struktur manajemen yang membingungkan. Di sini dapat kita lihat bahwa walaupun Brazil sudah lebih maju daripada Indonesia, namun pemerintah kadang masih menjadi “penghambat” perkembangan negaranya sendiri.
Brazil menggunakan foreign investement dalam membiayai pembangunan infrastrukturnya, sedangkan Indonesia masih banyak mengandalkan pemnerimaan pemerintah. Ini menunjukkan bahwa walaupun status kedua negara adalah sama-sama emerging countries, namun pihak luar negeri lebih mempercayai Brazil untuk mengelola dananya, karena keadaan di Indonesia yang masih belum stablil.
Namun terdapat satu kesamaan yang dapat dilihat dari data diatas, yaitu pada tahun 2007 kedua negara mengalami penurunan tingkat investasi, hal tersebut karena adanya pergejolakan ekonomi di dunia yang disebabkan dampak dari krisis mortgage bond di Amerika.

b. Gross Domestic Savings
Selain FDI, kita juga dapat menganalisa proses akumulasi dari variabel Gross Domestic Savings dimasing-masing negara. Karena indikator tersebut menunjukkan bahwa semakin tinggi pendapatan per kapita masyarakat, maka akan semakin tinggi pula savings nya. Berikut ini adalah data Gross Domestic Savings negara Indonesia dan Brazil.
GROSS DOMESTIC SAVINGS (%GDP)

Country Name | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | World | 20,86 | 21,55 | 21,63 | 22,18 | 22,47 | 21,46 | 19,21 | 19,73 | 19,54 | Brazil | 18,68 | 20,99 | 19,81 | 19,66 | 19,85 | 20,88 | 17,68 | 19,21 | 18,99 | Indonesia | 32,94 | 28,73 | 29,23 | 30,81 | 28,96 | 28,87 | 33,79 | 34,25 | 34,18 |
Apabila dilihat dari data diatas, Gross Domestic Savings (GDS) Indonesia lebih besar jika dibandingkan dengan negara Brazil, bahkan dunia. Tabungan dan investasi merupakan faktor penentu dalam pertumbuhan GDP jangka panjang dan standard of living yang dicerminkan dari pendapatan per kapita suatu negara. Namun sayangnya, tingginya tingkat GDS yang tinggi ini tidak diikuti dengan pertambahan output atau GDP per kapita penduduk. Hal ini dikarenakan saving tidak memberikan return yang tinggi dibandingkan bila kita melakukan investasi. Masyarakat Indonesia masih cenderung untuk melakukan tabungan ketimbang investasi karena return stabil yang didapatkan. Ini menyebabkan GDS akan menunjukkan adanya transformasi struktural, namun sayangnya kegiatan ini tidak mendorong perekonomian, karena terlalu banyak melakukan saving, maka perekonomian akan stagnan, tanpa ada perkembangan yang berarti.
Sedangkan di Brazil, masyarakat lebih cenderung untuk melakykan investasi, maka itu GDS nya tidak terlalu tinggi, malah di bawah rata-rata dunia. Ini adalah salah satu dari kebijakan pemerintah untuk mendorong masyarakatnya berinvestasi, agar perkenomian cepat bertumbuh. c. Pembentukan Modal Tetap Domestik Bruto (PMTDB)
Investasi = Pembentukan modal tetap domestik bruto + perubahan inventory
Itulah mengapa,
InvestmentGDP= Pembentukan Modal Tetap Domestik Bruto (PMTDB)PDB

PEMBENTUKAN MODAL TETAP DOMESTIK BRUTO (%GDP)

Country Name | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | World | 20,32 | 20,76 | 21,18 | 21,63 | 21,68 | 21,34 | 19,72 | 19,25 | 19,43 | Brazil | 15,28 | 16,10 | 15,94 | 16,43 | 17,44 | 19,11 | 18,07 | 19,46 | 19,28 | Indonesia | 19,51 | 22,45 | 23,64 | 24,13 | 24,95 | 27,70 | 31,11 | 32,08 | 32,02 |

PMTDB Indonesia relatif lebih tinggi daripda Brazil, begitu juga dengan dunia. Maka dari itu dapat dikatakan proses transformasi struktural Indonesia memiliki perkembangan yang lebih baik jika dibandingkan dengan Brazil. Namun, apabila dianalisa lebih dalam, PMTDB Indonesia memiliki perbedaan yang cukup jauh menurut harga berlaku dan harga konstan menunjukkan kondisi infrastruktur Indonesia yang buruk.

2. Pendidikan

a. School Enrollment School Enrollment Primary (% gross) | | | | | | Country Name | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | Brazil | 142,23 | 141,02 | 136,66 | | | | | | Indonesia | 91,50 | 91,81 | 92,39 | 95,45 | 94,83 | 95,70 | 95,31 | 96,49 |

Tingkat school enrollment primary school di Indonesia dan Brazil masih di atas jumlah rata-rata dunia. Hal ini dapat terjadi karena adanya kewajiban belajar selama beberapa tahun di kedua negara, sehingga grafik kedua negara cenderung jauh dari grafik School Enrollment dunia. Namun, jika dilihat secara rinci, tingkat School Enrollment di Brazil mengalami penurunan. Berdasarkan pencarian yang kami lakukan, hal ini terjadi karena adanya peningkatan tuition fee untuk pendidikan primer di Brazil antara tahun 2000-2008 sebesar 2.6%. Walaupun demikian, tingkat School Enrollment negara Brazil masih jauh di atas Indonesia dan rata-rata Dunia. Untuk Indonesia sendiri, School Enrollment Rate untuk primary school masih cukup tinggi dibandingkan dengan rata-rata dunia. Hal ini bisa terjadi karena adanya dukungan pemerintah atas program wajib belajar 9 tahun dengan membebaskan biaya pendidikan dasar untuk murid SD dan SMP.

b. Belanja Pemerintah untuk Pendidikan Public Spending on Education Total (% of GDP) | | | | | Country Name | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | Brazil | | 4,01 | 4,53 | 4,95 | 5,08 | 5,40 | 5,62 | | Indonesia | 3,22 | 2,75 | 2,87 | 3,60 | 3,04 | 2,90 | 3,53 | 3,00 |

Berdasarkan data di atas, tingkat spending rata-rata Pemerintah untuk pendidikan dunia relatif stabil dan meningkat di tahun 2009. Di Brazil, spending yang dilakukan Pemerintah untuk pendidikan terus meningkat dari tahun 2004 sampai tahun 2009, pengeluaran ini juga masih melampaui rata-rata dunia. Di Indonesia tingkat pengeluaran pemerintah atas pendidikan berfluktuasi dan berpuncak di tahun 2006 dan 2009. Hal ini terjadi sejak dikeluarkannya amandemen atas Undang-Undang Pendidikan di tahun 2003, bahwa setiap penduduk memiliki hak untuk mendapatkan pendidikan dasar, selain itu Pemerintah berkewajiban untuk membiayai pendidikan dasar tanpa mengenakan biaya apapun kepada siswa, sehingga Pemerintah diwajibkan untuk mengalokasikan 20% pengeluarannya untuk pendidikan. Selain itu di tahun 2005, Pemerintah meluncurkan program BOS (Biaya Operasional Sekolah) sebagai salah satu cara untuk menyuntik dana secara langsung ke sekolah-sekolah untuk dapat mempertahankan murid agar bisa tetap bersekolah serta memberikan keleluasaan bagi sekolah untuk mengatur sendiri dana mereka.

3. Penerimaan Pemerintah Tax Revenue (%of GDP) | | World | Brazil | Indonesia | 2004 | 14.7 | 15.9 | 12.3 | 2005 | 14.8 | 16.7 | 12.5 | 2006 | 15.4 | 16.5 | 12.3 | 2007 | 15.6 | 16.8 | 12.4 | 2008 | 14.9 | 16.7 | 13 | 2009 | 13.5 | 15.4 | 11.4 | 2010 | 14.2 | 15.3 | 10.9 |

Dapat terlihat bahwa besarnya pendapatan pajak (tax revenue) di Indonesia berada jauh dibawah negara Brazil juga secara rata-rata keseluruhan di dunia. Hal ini disebabkan oleh tarif pajak yang diterapkan dan rata-rata penghasilan di Indonesia secara keseluruhan masih relative rendah dibandingkan negara lain, selain itu juga disebabkan rendahnya kesadaran masyarakat sendiri dalam membayar pajak, terutama pajak langsung yang dikenakan terhadap penghasilan dan kekayaan. Selain dari sisi pajak yang dikenakan penghasilan (pajak langsung), rendahnya jumlah penerimaan pajak pajak tidak langsung di Indonesia di dukung oleh tingkat konsumsi pemerintah yang rendah terhadap barang-barang nonprimer karena masyarakat di Indonesia lebih mengutamakan barang-barang primer di Indonesia.
Di sisi lain, World Bank juga menamai code tax Brazil sebagai yang paling rumit. Ini dikarenakan setiap indutri mempunyai perhitungan tersendiri yang terlalu spesifik, sehingga menyulitkan dalam perhitungan. Namun, pemerintah Brazil membuat kebijakan baru untuk menurunkan tarif pajak yang berlaku.
Tetapi, perbedaan angka penerimaan pemerintah antara Indonesia dan Brazil tidak hanya disebabkan oleh penerimaan pemerintah melalui pajak, namun juga melalui konstribusi sosoal, grant receivables, dan penerimaan yang lain. Ini menunjukkan bahwa dari semua faktor ini, Brazil lebih unggul dari Indonesia. Pada tahun 2009, persentase penerimaan pajak baik di Indonesia maupun Brazil mengalami penurunan seiring dengan domino effect dari krisis sub-prime mortgage di Amerika di tahun itu yang menyebabkan barang manufaktur, industry, dan jasa ekspor juga impor negara-negara di dunia mengalami penurunan. Seperti yang sudah dijelaskan sebelumnya bahwa pajak penerimaan suatu negara dipengaruhi oleh pajak tidak langsung yang dikenakan pada produk barang dan jasa yang dikonsumsi oleh masyarakat.
Kesimpulan
Kami memilih Brazil sebagai negara pembanding dengan Indonesia, karena Indonesia dan Brazil banyak memiliki kesamaan, meskipun sekarang Brazil sudah jauh lebih unggul daripada Indonesia. Yang pertama adalah soal jumlah penduduk. Brazil dan Indonesia sama-sama masuk dalam urutan 5 teratas untuk negara dengan jumlah penduduk terbanyak. Jumlah penduduk ini yang menyebabkan GDP kedua negara relatif tinggi, walaupun keduanya masih mempunyai distribusi pendapatan yang kurang baik. Walau begitu, Brazil lebih unggul di GDP karena komoditi ekspornya yang mulai memproduksi barang olahan ketimbang bahan baku. Yang kedua adalah letaknya yang sama-sama di wilayah tropis, membuat kedua negara kaya akan sumber daya alam, dan keduanya juga sama-sama kuat di ekspor raw material. Yang ketiga adalah peran pemerintah yang terkadang menghambat perkembangan ekonomi. Walaupun Brazil kini sudah lebih transparan dibandingkan Indonesia, namun peran pemerintah di kedua negara masih dianggap kurang efisien. Yang keempat adalah kenyataan bahwa kedua negara adalah emerging countries, membuat keduanya sama-sama berpotensi untuk kuat secara ekonomi di masa mendatang. Dari analisis transformasi struktural kami di atas, dapat disimpulkan bahwa hampir dalam setiap sektor, Brazil lebih unggul daripada Indonesia. Indonesia hanya unggul dalam dua variabel yaitu Gross Domestic Savings dan Pembentukan Modal Tetap Domestik Bruto ini menunjukkan kecenderungan masyarakat Indonesia untuk menggunakan penerimaannya untuk saving ketimbang investasi. Selain itu juga besarnya pengeluaran pemerintah untuk membeli modal tetap menunjukkan kebijakan pemerintah untuk memperbaiki infrastruktur Indonesia. Brazil dan Indonesia mempunyai karateristik yang sangat similiar, namun pencapaian yang didapatkan Brazil sudah lebih maju bila dibandingkan dengan Indonesia. Ini berarti, Indonesia juga mempunyai kesempatan yang sama untuk maju, namun terhambat oleh banyak faktor internal yang masih harus banyak diperbaiki.

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