PHILIPPINE FOREST Under our constitution, a forest is legally defined as “that portion of the public domain characterized by a predominant growth of trees or wood species, including nipa, mangrove, and all lands of the public domain not classified as agricultural, industrial, commercial, residential, resettlement, minerals or grazing lands”. It is often said that life comes from the forest. It is an area of land where flora and fauna are present.

Types of Philippine Forests:

* Dipterocarp Forest
Generally, dipterocarp forests are the major source of timber and other forest products. The dominant trees in this type are internationally known as “ Philippine Mahogany” the trade name of commercial woods which are light red to reddish brown in color. The apitong, guijo, lawan, mayapis, tangile and yakal.

* Pine Forests
Pine forests provide long fibers which are good in making strong material for cement bags, and also provide turpentine for paint manufacture. Pine forests are usually found in mountain region of high altitude, such as in Northern Luzon.

* Molave (also called mulawin)
They are highly valued for natural beauty and durability. Molave stands frequently in regions of distinct dry limestone ridges. Species that belong to this type are narra, ipil, tindalo, akle,and banuyo.

* Mangroves (bakawan)
These types of forests occur on tidal flats. They are found along the seacost extending along the streams where the water is brackish (mixed with salt, briny). Species included in the type are potatan, busain, langarai, api-api, tanagal, nippa palm and the like.

* Mossy or Mild Mountain
This is also called “protection forest”. They occur on high elevations or tips of high mountain regions. Mossy and submarginal although not commercially exploitable, provide supply of water for domestic use in lowlandsand prtotect watershed areas. These forests protect the soil and water of wildlife feeding grounds that gives its name “protection forest”. The principal species are lokinai and igem.

* Beach Forests
These forests occur in dry sandy beaches, where pandan is abundant. Dapdap, talisay, agoho, and tawilis are found here.

Importance of Forests

* Forests are of Economic Asset

Wood and forest based industries are sources of foreign exchange earnings needed to finance our development program. Forest based industries provide livelihood to some Filipino workers and their families. The living standards of more people are improved through employment opportunities. The important products derived from forests are: woods; other products derived from trees are the bark used in the making of roofs, mats, hats, bags, coloring for local wines, textile, and also for coloring fishnets and leather; leaves and barks are sources of medicines: tannin a substance obtained from the bark of trees is used to make the leather of our shoes flexible, strong; exudents, the natural secretions in the form of raisins and gums. They are used in the manufacture of medical ointment, varnish, lacquer, shoe polish, linoleum, floor wax, boots, tires, water hoses, surgical equipment, telephone and radio parts, submarine cables insulators, bubble gum, and many others, and dye as coloring matter.

* Forests are of Ecological Assets
Trees cut down air and noise pollution. Certain kinds of trees absorb poisonous gases like carbon dioxide, sulfur and nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide from vehicular and industrial exhaust. Trees cut down pollution by acting as barriers to loud sounds. 6-8 decibels of sound can be absorbed by 100-foot width of trees. Trees must be planted along busy highways, airports, bus stations, entertainment houses, vicinity of factories to reduce noise pollution.
Forests regulate nature’s water cycle. The evaporating water from the leaves of trees and other plants cools the atmosphere. Water vapor is a source of rainfall.
The cover litters on the ground from the decayed parts of trees and plants prevent the rapid flow of water and also a source of humus for soil fertility.
Forests minimize typhoon destruction. They act as natural “wind-breakers”. The tall trees act as shield or obstacle to strong winds.
They protect and promote agricultural production. The decayed parts of trees and plants become natural fertilizers, thus rendering the soil fertile.
They protect crops against common pests. Forests are the homes for birds and animals that feed on insects and other animals harmful to agricultural crops. Destruction of the bird’s habitats lessens the bird’s population, thus increasing the number of harmful insects.

Forest Land and Resources Based on the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, the Philippines: * Total Land Area of 30 million hectares * Forest lands- 15.8 million * 15.0 million hectares or 94.4% have been classified as of 1995 * 881 million hectares or 5.6% remain unclassified

The classified forest lands are further categorized: * Forest reserves- 21.8% * Timberlands- 66.265% * National parks- 8.94% * Military and naval reservation- 1.1% * Fishponds- 0.5%
Based on DENR report, there’s no substantial change in the area of the forest land over the last five years. Region IV has the biggest tract of forest land, followed by Region II. The concentration of established forest reserves and timberland are in region XI. Forest vegetation covers about 2 % of the total land area of the Philippines. The remaining forest areas are merely confined to steep and very steep areas and are often not accessible. The most important timber region of the country is found in region II which consists of Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, and Quirino Provinces, with about 1.4 million hectares of forest cover of 43% of Region II is the highest in Region V, VI and VII have the lowest forest cover percentage in the country.

Problems of Our Forest Several Factors Caused the Destruction of Our Forests: * * Forests fires( the most destructive) * Illegal logging * Slash and Burn(kaingin) * Natural calamities like typhoons, erosion, etc. * Human settlements * Urbanization * Mining

Forest Conservation The DENR recommends the following:
Methods of Saving and Maintain The Forests:

* Afforestation
- involves tree planting in areas devoid of vegetation and forests cover, such as sand dunes. Techniques that may be used are direct seedling, planting with seedlings or planting with cuttings.

* Scientific Harvesting
- in harvesting timber from our forests “selective logging” is used for dipterocarp and other forests types, while the seed tree or mother tree method is used on pine forest.

* Selective Logging
- involves the cutting, gathering and removal of the forest of selected mature and defective trees in order to leave behind an adequate number of healthy residual or smaller trees, particularly of the commercial species, for future harvest. This system ensures maintenance of sufficient forest cover for the protection and conservation of soil, water, plant and wildlife.

BIODIVERSITY Biodiversity is refers to the many different life forms in our ecosystem which includes plants, animals and minute living organisms in the soil and other parts of the plant.
Three categories of Biodiversity: * Species diversity
- refers to the variety of species within a region or community. A precise measurement of biodiversity used by some scientists is “taxonomic diversity”.

* Ecosystem diversity
- as defined in the Philippine Environmental Quality Report, 1990-1995. Ecosystem diversity relates to varied habitats, biotic communities, and ecological processes in the biosphere, as well as, the tremendous diversity within ecosystem in terms of habitat differences and the variety of ecological processes.

* Genetic Diversity
- it is the sum total of genetic information, contained in the genes of individual organisms that inhabit the earth. The DENR had identified 12,000 plant species and 170,000 species of insects. There are so many animal and plant species which remain unidentified at all because of rapid destruction of our ecosystem.

Classification according to the number of their living: Animals and plants are classified according to the number of their living kind. These are: * Endangered (E) -have a few number of living in their kind * Rare (R) -almost extinct and are hard to find * Critically Endangered -very hard to find due to that they are highly for extinction * Threatened (T) -species and subspecies of wildlife whose populations throughout the islands where, they are found have suffered high degree of depletions to the point of having their numbers reduced to the minimum, below which subspecies will totally become extinct. * Vulnerable (V) -species and subspecies of wildlife whose populations are still sizeable but are under threat from serious adverse factors through their range and are believable likely to move to the endangered category in the near future. * Indeterminate (I) -species and subspecies of wildlife whose populations are suspected of belonging to either one of the E, V and R categories but for which insufficient information is currently available to determine definite status. * Insufficiently Known (K) - species and subspecies of wildlife that are suspected but not definitely known to belong to any of the above categories because of the lack information.
Causes of Extinction:
*Four Categories of Risk:
1.) Population Risk - random variations in population rates can cause a species in low abundance to become extinct

2.) Environmental Risk - risk-population size can be affected by changes in the environment that occur from day to day, month to month and year to year - involves variations in the physical or biological environment including changes in predator, prey, symbiotic or competitor species

3.) Natural Catastrophe
- a sudden change in the environment not the result of human action
Examples:
* Fires, Major storms, Earthquakes, Floods, Changes in currents and upwelling

4.) Genetic Risk - detrimental change in genetic characteristics not caused by external environmental changes Endangered Species in the Philippines (Landbank of the Philippines Calendar 2004): 1.) Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga Jefferyi) -country’s National Bird as declared by Presidential Proclamation No. 615 in 1995 replacing the maya by President Fidel Ramos -one of the largest and powerful eagles in the world -about a meter in length and has a wingspan of around 2 meters -world’s rarest and most critically endangered species -geographically restricted to the islands of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, old-grown rainforest 100-1000 meters above sea level -60 years of lifespan -gives birth to only one chick every 2-3 years -estimated number as of year 2010 is 180 to 500 (google) -Cause of population decline: Uncontrolled hunting, habitat loss or deforestation, and pollution. 2.) Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia Mydas) -Green Sea Turtle’s flesh is colored brown -named after the green fats in its body as it is herbivores -powerful and fast at sea but awkward and slow on land -can grow about 4 feet and more than 400 lbs -called ‘Pawikan’ in most Filipino dialects and which has Turtle Islands -Tawi-tawi as its significant nesting site, the Green turtle is considered the largest shelled sea turtle but also one of the most threatened

-Threats: * Natural threats from monitor lizards, crabs, and even ants that eat the eggs; birds * Dogs and cats which waylay and devour the baby turtles or hatchings * Sharks and killer whales which eat the adults -Cause of Rapid Population Decline: * Attributed to human from decorative purposes or as delicacies because of its high price * Pollution, coastal development and the difficulty of coming up with internal laws for its protection 3.) Tarsier (Tarsius Syrichta) -a primate with very unusual features and very strange habits -has enormous eyes excellent for seeing at night but do not work well in daylight -its neck is extremely flexible and can turn almost 360 degrees to locate its prey -has a long tail that exceeds the length of its body -fingers and toes have pads which allow it tp climb trees, sleep and even give birth while clinging to one -enable to leap almost 10 feet from tree to tree -can’t walk on land but only hop -can only found in the Philippines especially in Bohol, Samar, Leyte and some parts of Mindanao -Cause of population decline: Hunters and trappers who shake them out of trees or chop down branches of trees where they live. 4.) Dugong (Dugong dugon) -living up to its moniker as the sea cow -350 kgs and reaches length of 3.5 meters -found in the warm shallow coastal waters of the world -can eat up to 30 kgs of sea grass daily -slow moving unless alarmed -extremely shy around humans but very affectionate and playful towards one another -may be seen rolling around in the water, hugging objects like anchor lines or each other -presence of Dugongs in an area is a major indicator of a healthy ocean environment -Cause of population decline: Widespread habitat destruction due to dredging, pollution and conversion to fishponds. 5.) Tamaraw (Bubalus Mindorensis)
Common name: Tamaraw
Scientific name: Bubalus mindorensis
Other names: Mindoro dwarf buffalo, Timaraw, Tamarao, Tamarau, Mindorobüffel, Búfalo de Mindoro
Gestation period: 276-315 days
Life span: 20-25 years
Family group: Solitary Diet: Grass
Main Predators: None, apart from humans
In 1996, the International union for the conversation of Nature (UNC) listed the Tamaraw as one of the 10 most endangered species in the world. Today, it is the largest endangered land animal in the country.
Known only to occur in Mindoro, a huge number of Tamaraw populated most parts of the island a century ago. But unabated hunting – owning to its reputation as a wild and aggressive animal – and destruction of its natural habitat drove the remaining population to a few remote areas in the mountains. A solitary creature, it also became nocturnal due to encroachment and disturbance caused by humans.
Although it shares many similarities with the carabao, the Tamaraw is noted for its horns which grow right upward to about 14 to 20 inches in “V” from. Its bulk body and short legs give it a squat appearance while its agility and strong legs allow it to push through dense jungle and climb steep mountains. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources has proclaimed the month of October as a special month for the conservation and protection of the Tamaraw.

6.) Spotted Deer (Cervus Alfredi)
Common name: Spotted Deer
Scientific name: Cervus Alfredi
Other names: Philippine spotted deer, Visayan deer, Prince Alfred's sambar, Sambar de Prince Alfred, Prinz-Alfred Hirsch, Lasao, Usa, Dulom, Manginum, Libay, Pero
Gestation period: 8 months
Life span: Up to 20 years (in captivity)
Family group: Small groups of up to three deer (although the small herd size may be due to human interference). Males may be solitary.
Diet: Young grass, low-growing leaves and buds
Main Predators: None, besides humans
Most noted for the round spots of its flanks, the Spotted Deer is small, measuring only about 80cm tall at the shoulder. Formerly found from sea level to mountaintops, it now makes its home in the forest clearings where young plants grow.
The spotted deer once lived throughout the dense tropical forests of the Visayan Islands. A survey in 1985 indicated that only small populations were found in the parts of the more remote forested regions in Panay, Negros, Leyte and Samar. A subsequent survey in 1991 revealed that it has dwindled to only small populations in Panay and Negros and has been rooted out of 95 percent of its former range.
Today, it is one of the rarest mammals in the world. The decline of the spotted deer is due to hunting pressure, habitat loss due to clearing for agriculture and bad practices from legitimate logging operations.

7.) Isolated Tree Frog (Ranidae: Platymantis Insulatus)
Common name: Isolated Tree Frog
Scientific name: Platymantis Insulatus
Life span: 5 years

Description:
This is commonly known as ‘palaka’ and is classified as endangered. It inhabits the floor near or at the entrances of the limestone caves at about 66 meters elevation in type locality. This small species of frog was taken within the entrances of two limestone caves among the leaves and the debris on the floor or on the small shrubs growing just inside the entrance.
The frog’s Snout-vent length is about 38 to 42 mm. The head is relatively narrow; snout round-pointed; upper jaw protruding. Fingers are relatively long and narrow without webs. The first finger is shorter than the second. The dorsum and upper lateral surfaces are grayish olive green to live-brown, the lighter shaded specimens heavily mottled with large irregular, brownish or dark blotches. The upper lips have irregular dark blotches or bands. Hind limbs have narrow, irregular, dark cross bands.

Distribution and Habitat:
It is only known from the island of Gigante South in the Philippines. Gigante South is a small volcanic island of about 300 hectares with limestone caves. This frog occupies primary and secondary forest on karst limestone outcrops at low elevations.

Reproduction:
Very little is known about this species. It breeds by direct development.

8.) Golden – crowned Flying Fox (Chiroptera – Pteropodidae: Acerodon jubatus)
Common Name: Golden-capped Fruit Bat
Scientific Name: Acerodon Jubatus

Description:
The common name is Paniki. This is endangered and endemic to the Philippines, widespread with the exception of the Palawan faunal region and the Batanes and Babuyan Groups. The giant golden-crowned flying fox gets its species name from the golden fur around the head, in sharp contrast to the black body. Like all other fruit bats, they have no tail. They are among the largest bats, with a wingspan of 1.5–1.7 metres (4 ft 10 in–5 ft 7 in) and weighing 0.7–1.2 kilograms (1.5–2.6 lb). The giant golden-crowned flying fox is primarily nocturnal, and can travel at least 40 kilometres (25 mi) in one night searching for food. This bat is a pollinator and seed disperser for many fruit trees in the Philippines. It uses water for grooming
Habitat:
The giant golden-crowned flying fox is confined to the forests of the Philippines, where it occurs mostly at elevations from sea level to 1,100 m (3,600 ft). It prefers uninhabited areas. A 2005 study found none in inhabited areas. The same study also revealed that these bats use river corridors more than originally thought, because the fig trees located near rivers are the bats' main source of food. They do like to be close to agricultural fields but only in undisturbed forest areas.
Reproduction:
Little is known about their reproduction. They appear to have two breeding seasons, but females only become pregnant during one of them. They typically give birth to only one pup. Females reach sexual maturity at two years.

9.) Negros Fruit Dove (Columbidae: Ptilinopus aracanus)
Common name: Negros Fruit Dove
Scientific name: Ptilinopus Aracanus

Description:
Ptilinopus arcanus is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only by a single female specimen (one of a pair) collected on Mt Canlaon on the island of Negros in 1953 (Collar et al. 1999). Its population is unknown and, given the failure of any fieldworker to encounter it since its discovery, it must be extremely rare. However, the recent discovery on Panay of threatened species which, until 1990, were known only from Negros, and sometimes formerly Guimaras (e.g. Negros Bleeding-heart Gallicolomba keayi and White-throated Jungle-flycatcher Rhinomyias albigularis), suggests that it is not impossible that this enigmatic bird may be extant.
The specimen was shot in a tall fruiting tree in primary forest at c.1,100 m. It is possible that it is a lowland specialist discovered at its upper altitudinal limit (as forest at this site had been cleared up to 1,000 m).

10.) Luzon Scops – Owl (Otus longicorns-Scops longicornis)
Common name: Luzon Scops – Owl
Scientific name: Scops Longicorns

Description:
The common name is Bang-ao (Benguet). This is classified as vulnerable. The habitat is the rainforest and pine forests of Luzon.
Otus longicornis is endemic to Luzon, Philippines, where it is recorded from the provinces of Ilocos Norte, Benguet, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Quezon, Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur. Despite its fairly wide distribution and elevation tolerance, the species is generally uncommon and appears to be sensitive to habitat alteration in the lowlands. Prey includes forest mice and other small animals.
It has been recorded from humid forest in foothills and mountains, and pine forest, from 360 to 1,800 m. Recent records are from lower montane forest at 700-1,500 m. It is believed to feed mainly on insects and a nest with chicks was observed in May.

11.) Philippine Pond Turtle (Testudines – Emidydae: Heoaemys Leytensis)
Common name: Philippine Pond Turtle
Scientific name: Heoemys Leytensis
Description:
This is commonly named as Pagong, Ba-o. This is classified as rare. This is known from specimens collected in Cabalian, Southern Leyte and Taytay, Northern Palawan. This is semi – aquatic to terrestrial. This is known to be one of the least known specimens of hard-shelled turtle in the world.
Philippine forest turtles have brown to reddish brown to black carapaces that reach a length of 21 cm (8.3 in). Larger individuals can reach 30 cm (12 in) in length, though this is relatively rare.
Due to its rarity and its status as newly rediscovered, little is known of the life cycle of the Philippine forest turtle. From observations, however, Philippine forest turtles appear to exhibit long life spans and high adult survival rates. Like most turtles, their sexual maturation is delayed but they are able to mate multiple times before death (iteroparity).
Habitat:
Philippine forest turtles are known only from northern Palawan and surrounding islands. This includes the island of Dumaran where the species is still relatively abundant in creeks. Elsewhere, it is believed their populations are declining sharply, particularly in the areas of Taytay and San Vicente. Its distribution area is estimated to be less than 100km2.

Different Establishments Concerning Wildlife in the Philippines: 1) Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
The DENR's three main functions and responsibilities are the following: A. Formulation and Implementation of rules and policies that involve the management of the environment, and the prevention and control of pollution B. Supervision of policies and programs that concerns the conservation, use, and replenishment of the country's natural resource C. Establishment of rules concerning the Philippine forests, lands, mineral source, and wildlife

2) Convention for International Trade on Endangered Species (CITES)
CITES is one of the oldest international conservation agreements. It aims to ensure that the international trade in plants and animals occurs sustainably by regulating and monitoring it.

3) Philippine Council for Sustainable Development (PCSD)
The Council shall focus on issues that deal with the interplay of social, economic, and environmental concerns rather than solely sectoral matters that are already performed by the existing departments and agencies of the government.

Philippine Flora and Fauna
Several plants found only in the Philippines are endangered of disappearing from this part of the world.
Caused by Human Mismanagement on Biological Resources: * Deforestation * Trade * Excessive Extraction
According to Haribon Foundation, the flora of high mountains in the Philippines, the vegetation on Mt. Apo, Mt. Isarog and other mountains are seriously threatened by wanton destruction. * Haribon Foundation is a non-governmental organization which advocates community-based management and sustainable development to protect the country’s forests and other natural resources.
According to DENR’s report, the country has about 12 000 species of plants, with more than 8000 flowering plants. The rest are ferns, mosses, hepatics, liverworts, fungi and algae. Of this total, 3500 are endemic to the country. The DENR says barely six million hectares of the country’s original forests remain. Of this, about 800 000 hectares are considered virgin forest.
Endangered plants are divided into three categories as defined in the 1980 IUCN (International Union for the conservation of Nature) 1) Immediate Endangered Species 2) Vulnerable 3) Potentially Threatened Species This includes almaciga, akle, takotob, igem, kalantas, palasan, lambio, kamagong, and the Mindanaw cinnamon. Due to continued destruction of wild stocks for commercial purpose, their populations are steadily being reduced. The Philippine plants considered “rare species” are the mono, ungang, lacaubi, and katbalonga. Almaciga, and kalantos are near extinction listed by the Convention for International Trade on endangered species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES). CITES is an international organization which aims to protect important wildlife species against overexploitation and promote their scientific, cultural, aesthetic, recreational and economic values. Other species nearing extinction are batikuling, dungon, ipil, mangkono, sangilo, supa, tindalo, yakal, kaliot, Mindoro pine, dao and narra. Almaciga one of the expensive woods in the Philippines is used for engineering equipment, ruler, panel boards, general construction, piano and guitar bodies, packaging dairy and agricultural products. Sangilo is made into jewelry boxes and other novelties. Supa is highly valued in furniture, cabinet work, flooring and tool handles, Waling-waling , an orchid that can be found on the trunks of the dipterocarp trees in Davao and Cotabato and provinces, are already rare in their natural habitat due to excessive logging of dipterocarp trees.

Reasons for the Conservation of Endangered Species:
Some important reasons for the conserving endangered species can be classified as utilitarian, ecological, aesthetic, moral and cultural.

* UTILITARIAN JUSTIFICATION
-is based on the fact that many wild lives might be useful and it is imprudent to destroy them before we have a chance to test their uses. One reason is the need to conserve wild strains of grains and other crops. By introducing fresh generic characteristics from the wild, new hybrid strains can be developed that are disease resistant. Many important chemical compounds come from wild organisms. Digitalis comes from purple foxglove is an important drug for certain heart-ailments. Well-known medicines derived tropical forests include anticancer drugs from serpent wood and antibiotics from tropical fungi. Many species provide pollution control. Plants, fungi and bacteria remove toxic substances from the air, water and soil.

* ECOLOGICAL JUSTIFICATION
-is necessary to maintain the functions of ecosystem and the biosphere. Trees removes certain pollutants from the air and some soil bacteria fix nitrogen in the atmosphere to nitrate and ammonia that can be taken up by other living things.

* AESTHETIC JUSTIFICATION
-biological diversity adds to the quality of life, providing some of the most beautiful and appealing aspects of our existence.

* MORAL JUSTIFICATION
-is based on the belief that species has a moral right to exist, independent of our need for them.

* CULTURAL JUSTIFICATION
-specific species some threatened or endangered, are of great importance to many indigenous people, for whom diversity in forest and wildlife provides food, shelter and tools, fuel, materials for clothing and medicine.

The Convention for International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES)
(CITES) has listed 46 wildlife species in the Philippines that are rare, threatened or endangered. Among those included in the list are the Philippine Eagle, tamaraw, calamian deer, Palawan bearcat, Mindanao gymure, Philippine tarsier, Panay flying fox, flying lemure, Cebe black shama, Philippine cockatoo, ‘bungang ipo’, tagbak, and Sander’s glocacia. According to Dr. Seymour from Bishop Museum in Honolulu, Hawaii, the Philippines have already lost 40 % of its endemic flora.
The DENR of which PAWB (Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau) is a line agency, blamed forest destruction as the major cause of the decline of the country’s wildlife population and loss of species.
The PCSD (Philippine Council for Sustainable Development) blamed the biodiversity loss on habitat destruction, over exploitation of resources, chemical or environmental pollution of resources, chemical and biological pollution.

Inland bodies of water suffer the greatest toll from chemical wastes from mine tailings, and hazardous waste from industrial plants, factory discharge, agricultural fertilizer and pesticide runoffs, and even household wastes, the report said.
Out of the eighty six species of birds in the country, forty five species are extinct, critical, or endangered, making the Philippines the “No. 1” country in the world in terms of number of threatened endemic species of birds.
The “tamaraw” (Bubalus Mendorensis) has become the most threatened mammal with population of less than 200.
In the marine ecosystem, “commercially important” species like tuna, shellfish and other audible species are also overharvested.
In 1992, the United Nation convened a conference on Environment and Development. This was held in the Rio de Janairo, Brazil, and came to be known by many names: the UNCED, the Earth Summit, and Rio Summit. Now it is called the Global Agenda 21 or Agenda 21.
The PCSD was the group which led the making of the Philippine Agenda. It was the very first national council for sustainable development created after UNCED.

Forest Management
OPLAN SAGIP GUBAT was implemented in an effort to save and protect the remaining old growth forests of the Philippines and preserve its biodiversity. Its execution anchored DENR administrative Order No.24 Series of 1991 which imposes total logging ban in old growth forests and took effect on January 1, 1991.

Protected Areas and Wildlife Management
The passage if the NIPAS Act of 1992 or the act providing for the establishment and management of National Integrated Protected Areas System aims to preserve biological diversity and management of protected areas. Forest Land Management Agreement (FLMA) gives reforestation contractors and privilege to manage and protect the areas they reforested and be able to benefit from the harvest of forest plantation.

Community Forest Program
The Community Forest Program (CFP) to strengthen the shift from large scale commercial forest management to local community based forest management. It is also known as Kagubatang Pampamayanan. It is aimed at arresting forest destruction, gradual restoration of forest cover in denuded areas and at the same time providing some means of livelihood for upland dwellers. The program is an alternative to kaingin: farming.

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