...1 Introduction: Phonology is the study of how sounds function within a given language. The study of English phonology for our purposes can be divided into two broad approaches: segmental and suprasegmental. Segmental phonology is a bottom up view of phonology which deals with the individual sounds which make a difference to meaning. These are called phonemes and their effect can be seen clearly in the following example: * Red (colour). * Read (past tense of the verb to read). * Read (present tense of the verb to read). The pronunciation of 1 and 2 is the same; they are homophones. The spelling of 2 and 3 is the same; they are homographs. All three examples are made of 3 distinct phonemes /r/ followed by a vowel and ending with /d/. The difference in pronunciation of 2 and 3 is only the vowel sound. If we keep the vowel sound the same and change the initial consonant sound from /r/ to /b/ we have a distinguishably different word: bed or bead. In summary a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound which carries meaning. A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that makes semantic sense (semantics is the study of meaning.) Take for example the word “childlike”. This word has both two syllables and two morphemes: child – a young human- being, -like – a suffix, meaning “having the characteristics of”. The suffixes –ed and –ing are also morphemes as they change meaning when added. Morphemes are composed of phonemes when spoken. 2 The...
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...Phonology The branch of linguistics dealing with the relations among speech sounds in particular languages and in languages generally, and contrasting with phonetics. Though the creation of alphabetic writing necessarily required some intuitive grasp of phonology, the subject only began to be distinguished from phonetics in the late nineteenth century, and the distinction was not firmly established until well into this century, particularly as a result of the work done by the Prague School, which popularized the term ‘phonology’ (Trask ,1996). Phonetics The scientific study of speech, conventionally divided into articulatory phonetics (the study of the organs of speech and their use in producing speech sounds),acoustic phonetics (the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speaking) and auditory phonetics (the study of the processing and interpretation of speech sounds by the ear, the nervous system and the brain); instrumental phonetics is the study of any of these by means of instruments to measure, record or analyse data. Anthropophonics (or general phonetics) considers the total range of speech sounds producible by the human vocal apparatus, independently of any real or possible linguistic use; linguistic phonetics examines the speech sounds occurring in particular languages or in languages generally. Phonetics is commonly regarded as a distinct discipline from linguistics, the two together being labelled the linguistic sciences (Trask...
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...International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Origin The IPA was first published in 1888 by the Association Phonétique Internationale (International Phonetic Association), a group of French language teachers founded by Paul Passy. The aim of the organisation was to devise a system for transcribing the sounds of speech which was independent of any particular language and applicable to all languages. A phonetic script for English created in 1847 by Isaac Pitman and Henry Ellis was used as a model for the IPA. Uses * The IPA is used in dictionaries to indicate the pronunciation of words. * The IPA has often been used as a basis for creating new writing systems for previously unwritten languages. * The IPA is used in some foreign language text books and phrase books to transcribe the sounds of languages which are written with non-latin alphabets. It is also used by non-native speakers of English when learning to speak English. Where symbols appear in pairs, the one on the right represents a voiced consonant, while the one on the left is unvoiced. Shaded areas denote articulations judged to be impossible. http://www.omniglot.com/writing/ipa.htm Contents page Contents page for Vowels and Consonants Chapter 1 Chapter 1 book links Clicking on a symbol will take you to a part of the chart where you can hear the corresponding sound. To hear the sounds in a row or column and get short definitions of the terms click here. The sounds of English and the International...
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...A. LANGUAGE & LINGUISTIC 1. What is the meaning of language and linguistic? Language and linguistic are two different words that use differently all over the world. Language is the capacity of someone to communicate with other because it is the mode of expression of thoughts by means of articulation of sounds, exchanging ideas, feelings, intentions, attitudes, expectations, perceptions or commands, as by speech gestures, writings and behaviors. Therefore, language is a meaningful exchange of information between two or more individual. On the other hand, linguistic is a comparative study of language due to the fact that wherein you make a historical study of languages here. In this field you concentrate about the structure, rules, meanings and forms of languages. 2. How important is language and linguistic? In my own opinion, the significance of language in our lives is incomparable. It is not just restrained to being a means of communicating one’s thought and ideas to the rest, but has also become a tool for forging friendships, cultural ties, as well as economic relationships. In addition, the importance of language is essential to every aspect and interaction in our everyday lives. We use language to inform, to communicate the people around us of what we feel, what we desire and question or understand. We communicate effectively with our...
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...Meaningless sounds full of meaning Diego Ramos People happen to know what someone else means when they are talking; however, most of them do not comprehend what words are: how they take a role to become meaningful and how they can change. As a matter of fact, they can change in a total different word or just the way they are pronounced; thus, this is something that is related to the phoneme. The phoneme has material to talk about and throughout this work, one can see what the definition of what this one is; in addition, the phenomenon of the allophone is explained and treated; also, the way of how not understanding something can affect the way either to communicate or to express one’s self is seen. At the end, but not the least important, how an “insignificant sound” (as some people might say) can affect completely meaning of a word is mentioned, too. All of these topics has something to do with the phoneme and that is something that shall be taken into account in this essay. First, it would be convenient to define what a phoneme is, and that is why in this piece of work we have got three different definitions in order to summarise the basic ideas and points one can say about this term. In order to start defining, there is Skaderar’s definition: in Skandera’s definition, phonemes have a meaning in the speakers language competence and performance, and they are the smallest and distinctive unit in speech (Skandera & Burleigh, 2005, p. 31). At the same time, there is the...
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...Lexis Special 1 : « Lexicology & Phonology / Lexicologie et phonologie » 15 A morphophonological approach to clipping in English Can the study of clipping be formalized?1 Denis Jamet2 Abstract In this paper, I will endeavor to define clipping, and see if there are any semantic differences between the multiplicity of terms: “shortening”, “clipping”, “truncations”, etc. I will examine the semantic role of clipping, and try to answer the following question: is clipping a wordformation device? I will mainly focus on the consequences and phonological realizations of clipping in English to show that the phonological regularities in the formation of clipping make it a potential word-formation device, by shedding new light on the tendencies formalizing the study of clipping. Key-words: clipping – truncation – clipping – phonology – lexicology – morphophonological realizations – linguistics *** Résumé Dans cet article, je reviens tout d’abord sur la définition de ce que l’on appelle troncation en français, mais shortening, clipping, truncation en anglais, afin de voir s’il y a des différences sémantiques entre les divers termes. J’examinerai le rôle sémantique de la troncation, puis tenterai de répondre à la question suivante : la troncation est-elle un procédé de création lexicale ? Principalement, je me pencherai sur les conséquences et les réalisations phonologiques de la troncation, en mettant au jour les tendances qui permettent de formaliser l’étude de la troncation, afin...
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...In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful Hebron University Faculty of Graduate Studies English Department Assimilation of Consonants in English and Assimilation of the Definite Article in Arabic By Hamada Shehdeh Abid Dawood حمادة داود Supervised by Dr. Ahmad Atawneh 2013/2014 Assimilation of Consonants in English and Assimilation of the Definite Article in Arabic Abstract This paper aims at discussing the term assimilation. Assimilation is a phonological process where a sound looks like another neighboring sound. It includes progressive, regressive, coalescent, full and partial assimilation. In addition, contextual assimilation is subject to the environment of sounds where historical assimilation is resulted from the development of languages. In Arabic, it is clear that the /l/ sound in the definite article disappears if followed by coronal consonants. It is, however, concluded that the importance of assimilation is to make pronunciation of a word or speech easier. 1. Introduction Assimilation is an everyday occurrence in every human language, and it is particularly common for nasal sounds (McMahon, 2002, p. 4). Thus, sounds in the environment of other sounds, across morpheme and word boundaries tend to undergo various phonological changes referred to as phonological processes (Ofulue et al, 2010, p. 49). Making a sound more like another in the same or next word in continuous utterance is called assimilation (Oxford Dictionary, 2008)...
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...The Linguistics Assessment of a Young Child’s Language Melissa Ozuna California State University, Los Angeles Questions: 1, 5, 7, 8, 12 The Linguistic Assessment of a Young Child’s Language Introduction “The child begins to perceive the world not only through his eyes but also through his speech.” Like Lev Vygotsky, Holmes speaks about one of the everyday behavior we use and that’s language. Communication is done by engaging our brains and bodies to make sounds and transfer one person’s thoughts to another. No matter how many languages there are, language can still be broken down into the same building blocks of communication. Specifically, linguistics is analyzed with one of the smallest building blocks like phonology, to lexicon, to syntax, to morphology, and communicative competence. Just how small these building blocks of linguistics come together at its own pace, is exactly how small it is to learn language. Language learning can be done at its own pace, but with the help of assessments there are common turning points, procedures, and phases one can follow to truly understand an individual’s language development over time. Method Participants Rita is a 3 year and two month old female. She is the second child of the family living under the roof with both parents. Father works at a Police station and mother’s occupation is at a office profession. From her beginning till her present days she has spoken 100% English. Procedure The interview was conducted in the living room/...
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...heories about how young children acquire and develop language Young children become amazingly proficient communicators during the first three years of life. As the Birth to Three Matters framework points out, they use 'the hundred languages of children' - body language (including facial expressions and dance); sign language (their own and family inventions as well as an officially recognised sign language); painting, drawing and mark-making; and oral expression. They have been acutely active listeners since their days in the womb, where they learned to recognise the speech patterns, tunes and tones of the languages used in their home contexts. Language theory research informs us that young children's language development is influenced by many factors, including having sensitive adults and older children around them who will listen and attend to their expressions and who will use and model appropriate language themselves. This has been called 'Motherese' by researchers led by Cathy Snow. Children's babbling during their first year includes the sounds of every world language and 'crib talk' demonstrates their intense interest in the sounds they hear around them. Although children with a hearing loss will stop babbling, if they grow up in a home with parents who can sign, they will follow the same patterns of development using their first language - signing - and will sign their first word at around the same age that hearing children speak theirs. Between two and three years...
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...Language PSY 360 June 17, 2015 Melissa Jackson ------------------------------------------------- Language An intense association exists between cognitive abilities and language. Thought processes have the capability of altering communication methods; however, methods of communication can very easily do the same to an individual’s way of thinking. New ideas are communicated in which thought can be generated simply by thinking of the name of a certain stimulus. Language can be defined by several different key components. A reciprocated attempt at a considerate conversation between individuals can be anything from arbitrary to unsubstantial, yet likely to be configured and orderly through numerous manners in which general ideas are configured through the different parts of a language (Papafragou, Li, Choi, & Han 2007). In addition, language can also be dynamic and constantly developing, therefore leading to the conclusion that such an intricate topic, such as language, is challenging to undertake, especially in explaining in more depth how it works in its entirety through the key components toward a better understanding. The main purpose of the key features of language, including arbitrariness, communications, and dynamics, as well as generative and structured divergences, is to facilitate the comprehension and translation of language itself. Associating words to stimuli is unsystematic in its development and is groundless in an unconscious attempt to form...
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..."...accent is used to refer to the breakthrough of native language phonology into the target language." While I agree that accent is generally used to refer to how a person sounds like relative to other speakers with regards to intonation and pronunciation of specific words, I cannot help but notice that the author has neglected choice of words in his definition of an accent. Language is a construct that is heavily influenced and, is in turn influenced, by culture; there is an intimate relationship between language and culture. Examination of various languages will reveal that some words or phrases in a particular language just cannot be translated perfectly into another language; the nuances and connotations are inevitably lost in the process of translation. For example, the French word "dépaysement" means the feeling that arises from not being in one's home country, the feeling of being a foreigner, and this word has no equivalent English translation. Language is a reflection of culture, and the values and practices intrinsic to it. Similarly, English users from different places not only have different intonation and pronunciation, they also utilize different words to mean the same things. In fact, some users of English even have constructed or creolized words to convey a whole wealth of meaning in their communications with other similar users. For example, in Singapore where many locals speak a colloquial English known as Singlish (a portmanteau of Singapore and English),...
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...Evaluating Reading Programs African-American (AA) and English Language Learners (ELL) students are groups that traditionally suffer in standard reading and English classrooms. A 1965 Harlem study cited by William Labov (Labov, Can reading failure be reversed pg. 40, laay ) contrasts two groups of students: one group that is not affiliated with street culture and one group that is. The findings are startling. AA students that did not associate with “street” groups on average read two grade-levels below students. This figure is alarming but nonetheless, two grade-levels can be remediated with the right intervention. However, the group that associated with “street” groups persisted to stall at an average plateau of a 4.9 grade reading level. A plateau indicates a systemic failure to address the underlying issue of instruction. The times have changed but the fact that AA and ELL youth are not being served has remained constant. One would (like to) believe that non-responsive students are wholly neglected, however, often times it is not a negligence in intervention, but a lack of appropriate reading curriculum/tools that creates the dire situation that underperforming students are in. AA and ELL students pose an educational challenge because they already possess language structures that vary from standard academic English in grammar, phonics, and cultural experience. The Ann Arbor decision reaffirms that although different, African American Vernacular (AAVE), is not mangled or fragmented...
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...What is teaching pronunciation? Mention some of the recent problem in teaching pronunciation in Nepalese context being based on those problems. Suggest some activities and techniques. Pronunciation is one of the aspects of a language which is particularly related with speech i.e. spoken form of the language. Pronunciation is particularly the way a word or a language is spoken or the manner in which someone utters a word. Pronunciation is also the act or result of producing the sounds of speech including articulation, stress, and intonation. Pronunciation is the most vita; aspect of a language as until and unless one does not speak or utter a word, other cannot understand what he/she mean. Being related with speaking, it refers to listening as well. It is believed that if there is no pronunciation means there is no language. There is a belief that language is vocally pronounced means if vocally pronounced means if vocally a word pronounced, it is language. For instance we do not regard the sounds produced by animals as uttered from the vocal cord is pronunciation. Teaching pronunciation means teaching the most prominent aspect of a language. It is the way of teaching the basic aspect of the language without which no language exists. Teaching of pronunciation is related with teaching of the sounds of a particular language. Not only the sounds. It also refers to teaching of the multiple aspects which could be included as below: 1. Teaching of sound system of language 2. Teaching...
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...spelling reform movement is still alive and is concentrated in the Simplified Spelling Society but lots of social, logical and practical factor factors slow the movement and encourage to maintain the current spelling. The punctuation started to appear in the Old English period, prior to this, there was no punctuation at all. Period and comma appeared as indicators to know what needed to be emphasized or when to pause to breathe. Spaces between determiners or proposition and the root occurred later, with the insertion of the question mark and the apostrophe. With the printing press, the punctuation started to be associated with the grammatical structure (hyphen marking the morphological boundaries), but was still based mostly on the phonology, with the comma suggesting a pause or used as an intonational contour. The changes in punctuation in our current system is slow, however the use apostrophe before a s seem to change over time, it tends to disappear for the possessive case, and on the contrary, is inserted to indicate plural. The transcription for the spoken language to the written version can lead to run-on sentences or comma splice, mistake that illustrate errors in the writing process, but not in the understanding of the language. The standardization of spelling is mainly due to dictionaries, that determine how a word should be spelled, pronounced and defined based on its usage, moreover, dictionaries must take the changes and differences into account. Writing speech...
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...CHAPTE CHAPTER 2 ARTICULATORY, ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY PHONETICS. PHONOLOGY 2.1. Phonetics and phonology Two terms are (often loosely) used to refer to linguistic disciplines studying that part of the linguistic sign which de Saussure called the acoustic image: phonetics and phonology. The importance of sounds as vehicles of meaning is something people have been aware of for thousands of years. However, systematic studies on the speech sounds only appeared with the development of modern sciences. The term phonetics used in connection with such studies comes from Greek and its origins can be traced back to the verb phōnein, to speak, in its turn related to phōnē, sound. The end of the 18th century witnessed a revival of the interest in the studying of the sounds of various languages and the introduction of the term phonology. The latter comes to be, however, distinguished from the former only more than a century later with the development of structuralism which emphasizes the essential contrastive role of classes of sounds which are labeled phonemes. The terms continue to be used, however, indiscriminately until the prestige of phonology as a distinct discipline is finally established in the first half of the 20th century. Though there is no universally accepted point of view about a clear-cut border line between the respective domains of phonetics and phonology as, indeed, we cannot talk about a phonological system ignoring the phonetic aspects it involves and, on the other...
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