...The `Placebo Effect' was defined by Wolf as "any effect attributable to a pill, potion or procedure but not to it's pharmacodynamic or specific properties" (Wolf, 1959. Cited by H.Brody, 1980). To date, the placebo has played a dynamic role throughout the history and development of medicine. Substances with no perceivable pharmacological benefit such as spiders, crocodile dung and human excrement have been prescribed up until the beginning of modern scientific medicine to treat various maladies. Obviously each of these substances induced a `Placebo Effect' in order to achieve the desired result as the treatment itself had no real medical value. However, as the medical sciences developed further, the incredible power of the placebo effect was anything but discredited - the power of the human mind in it's self-healing was deemed by clinicians as `voluminous'. It is quite profound, for instance, how a patient will commonly react much better when they are administered with a placebogenic injection as opposed to a lesser response from a tablet or capsule. This infers that the reaction received will vary in proportion to how potent the patient feels their treatment really is; obviously with the injection seeming to be the most potent agent. It is in conjunction with these hypotheses that the therapeutic sciences such as psychotherapy are formulated. It is also through the application of various forms of these `insight therapies' (communication therapy) that the use...
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...ESSAY 1993. Topic 10: Discuss the concept of the Placebo Effect and how it pertains to the real-life practice of Pharmacy and Medicine. "The Power of Thought - the Magic of the Mind!" (Lord George Byron. Cited by K.L. Roberts, 1940). How true, the human mind is undoubtedly quite magical. It's complexities stretch beyond our own horizons of comprehension and reach out into the mystic of the unknown. The mind possesses powers unrivalled by anything else - powers which extend to the self-healing of the human body with no aid other than faith - alias `the power of thought!' The use of the Placebo in medicine and pharmacy harnesses this incredible power and instigates the phenomenal self-healing process. The `Placebo Effect' has been used extensively throughout the history of medicine. Physicians have discovered the power of the human mind in healing and have tried to utilise this to it's full potential in all applicable aspects of therapeutic intervention. This report aims to discuss the Placebo Effect, it's power and history in relation to other forms of therapy, Case studies, the Ethical issues involved and whether they should be used or not. The `Placebo Effect' was defined by Wolf as "any effect attributable to a pill, potion or procedure but not to it's pharmacodynamic or specific properties" (Wolf, 1959. Cited by H.Brody, 1980). To date, the placebo has played a dynamic role throughout the history and development...
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...A Placebo is defined as any medication or procedure that the physician believes has no specific pharmacological activity against the condition being treated. A Placebo just looks like a regular treatment or medicine, but it’s not. The person getting a placebo does not know for sure that the treatment is not real. A placebo often take the form of sugar pills, saline injections, miniscule doses of drugs, or sham procedures designed to be void of any known therapeutic value. They may be used in clinical practice to determine a diagnosis or appropriate treatment in the face of clinical uncertainty. The use of placebo in clinical practice has received much more attention since past few years. A national Survey of primary care practitioners has found that nearly all doctors have given their patients placebos. The study shows placebo use is widespread in the UK, and doctors clearly believe placebos can help patients. Researchers say 97 percent admitted giving ‘impure’ placebos, those which have medical value but are unproven in the illness they are given for. Meanwhile, 12 percent had used ‘pure’ placebos, such as sugar pills. Of the doctors surveyed, 66 percent said pure placebos were ethically acceptable in certain circumstances, while 33 percent said they were never acceptable. Impure placebos were considered acceptable by 84 percent of doctors. More than 90 percent objected to using either type if it endangered patient-doctor trust, but nearly 20 percent said they might use placebos...
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...* Aim * Purpose of the study; indicates behavior or mental process that will be studied. * Target population * Group whose behavior the researcher wishes to investigate * Specific group of people whom they are interested in for their study. * Procedure * Step by step process used by the researcher to carry out the study. * Findings * State how the researcher interpreted the data that was collected. * Research findings are always open to discussion and debate. * It is important to interpret findings in terms of the culture in which the research has been conducted, and always to be aware of potential cultural bias. * Participants * People who take part in a psychological study. * Sample * Very important in determining the usefulness of a piece of research. * Obtain a sample that is representative of target population. * Representative sample * Try to obtain a sample that represents a population * The size of the sample matters. * Small groups are more open to distortions than large one. * Small group has an individual that quite influence on the overall result. * Opportunity sampling * A sample of whoever happens to be there and agrees to participate. * Easy way for the researcher to get participants, but one has to question the nature of an opportunity sample. * Can lead to rather biased results, and it is problematic to generalize from studies that use opportunity sampling...
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...The term doctors always comes out as someone that saves lives however do doctors actually save lives? Or are they the reason why patients do not survive? In the beginning of the medical studies it was common and secretive for doctors to conduct experiments without the patient's knowledge for many years. The reason doctors give for conducting these experiments is for only the sole purpose of saving humans however it is wrong to kill a human to save another one. No one’s life is worth more everyone has the same blood therefore the doctors reason is just an excuse. It is ethically wrong to give placebos to patients without knowledge. To begin with, placebos are typically used as a fake treatment that makes consumers believe they are actually...
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...consent • Debriefing • Right to withdraw • Deception • Confidentiality • Protection from harm • Cultural/ language barriers • If the results cannot be generalised to the whole population or to the real world (population/ ecological validity)...
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...exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. random assignment assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups. Experiment a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. Population all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.) operational definition a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as "what an intelligence test measures." placebo effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. Scatterplot a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). random sample a sample...
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...and the participant. Each has an obligation to the research study and by exhibiting ethical behavior, the data results will determine accurate information that the decision maker can use for their company. If there is a presence of unethical behavior like lying, deception, coercion, not fully being educated or aware of the study details, it can result in the damaging consequences for not only the participants, but it can also affect the shareholders of the company, the customers buying the product, and even the employees of the store that sells the product. This paper will go into detail of the many obligations each participant has to themselves as well as others. We cannot allow some people to be left at the back of the human rights bus… We must ensure the rights of individual groups or people –be they indigenous peoples, or peoples of Asian or African or American descent, or Jews or Muslims– are not sacrificed on an altar of progress for some while there are setbacks to others. -Matthew Coon Come, National Chief of The Assembly Of First Nations (Catalyst Centre, 2013). Research can open doors and allow for interests to be pursued, solve a problem that a company has, or it can help enhance a plan that is already in place. Applied research specifically emphasizes practical problem-solving. When a researcher begins to explore a topic, he strives for his work to be good which consists “of experimental studies that yield prescriptions for action” (Hostetler, 2005). Business...
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... | | | | | | | | | | | |Chapter Summary/Lecture Organizer | I. INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY A. What is Psychology? - The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology values empirical evidence - information acquired by direct observation and measurement using systematic scientific methods and critical thinking – the process of objectively evaluating, comparing, analyzing, and synthesizing information. Studying psychology offers practical solutions to everyday problems and develops an appreciation for scientific methods of research, as opposed to pseudo psychologies (“false psychologies”) that pretend to discover psychological information through nonscientific methods. B. Psychology’s Goals -The four goals of psychology are: (1) Description - to describe particular behaviors by careful scientific observation, (2) Explanation...
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...encompass a broader range of principles. The notorious Tuskegee study in Alabama that began in 1932and ended in1972 studied black men with syphilis. The study violated ethical principles in that informed consent was not obtained, confidentiality was violated and treatment was withheld when it became available. The study is well known, because of the tragedy it caused for many people and also because of the sheer lack of ethical consideration shown by the scientists concerned. The United States Public Health Service conducted a study for that began in 1932 and lasted until 1972, not the six months that was expected and is described as "the longest non-therapeutic experiment on human beings in medical history" (Brunner, 2009). The Tuskegee Syphilis Study was conducted from 1932 to 1972 around Tuskegee, Alabama. Six hundred poor, and mostly illiterate, African-American males, 400 of whom were infected with syphilis, were monitored for 40 years. Free medical examinations were given; however, subjects were not told about their diagnosis. Even though a cure (penicillin) became available in the 1950s, the study continued until 1972 with participants being denied proper treatment or given fake treatments and placebos, instead. In some cases, when subjects were diagnosed as having syphilis by other physicians, researchers intervened to prevent treatment. Many of the subjects died slow and painful deaths of syphilis during the study, which was stopped in 1973 by the U.S. Department of Health...
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...out what in the world we are thinking. Not only are we different from other species, we're radically different from each other. Thankfully, our differences can be examined more easily through the lens of psychology—the science that tells us how the mind, brain, and body work together. This lesson introduces you to the field of psychology—its origins, history, key perspectives, research methods, issues, and current trends. This lesson presents the following topics: • What is Psychology? • The History of Psychology • Modern Psychology Perspectives • Types of Psychological Professionals • The Science of Psychology • Ethics of Psychological Research What is Psychology? Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. • Behavior includes outward or obvious actions or reactions such as facial expressions or movement. These actions and reactions are sometimes referred to as body language. John wants to ask Susan for a date, and Susan wants him to ask her out. John worked up his courage, was about to ask her out when he walked by her desk, but Susan looked up with a frown on her face. Assuming that she was frowning at him, John walked quickly back to his own office. Susan, who had a horrible sinus headache, wondered why John was being so unfriendly. It's highly possible that both Susan and John were exhibiting body language that was being misinterpreted by the other. • Mental processes refer...
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...this field. Psychological research includes the study of behavior for use in a scientific or academic setting. There are two types of research, qualitative research and quantitative research. To conduct research, there are numerous general principles of psychology and methods in which has to be considered for research to be good with strong supporting evidence. General principles of psychology include operational definitions, population samples and eliminating the influence of expectations. There are several research methods, such as experiments, naturalistic observation, surveys, case histories, and correlational studies as well as ethical considerations in research. Researchers normally draw conclusions for a larger population using a sample. There are four major types of population samples; convenience samples, representative samples, random samples and cross cultural samples. Certain biases are present during research, researcher bias and participant bias. These biases may sway the findings of the experiment. Ethical guidelines must be taken into consideration during research; both human and nonhuman experimentation has guidelines set by the APA. When data is collected, it has to be interpreted visually. Statistics deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation and presentation of numerical data. It aids in the summarizing of data and allows inferences or descriptions to be made. Psychological research includes the study of behavior for use in a scientific and academic...
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...The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Some Ethical Reflections 75 The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Some Ethical Reflections Adebayo A. Ogungbure Department of Philosophy University of Ibadan, Nigeria philosopher.bayo@yahoo.com Thought and Practice: A Journal of the Philosophical Association of Kenya (PAK) New Series, Vol.3 No.2, December 2011, pp.75-92 thoughtandpractice@gmail.com http://ajol.info/index.php/tp/index Abstract There are established ethical principles to protect human participants in biomedical research from undue exploitation by researchers. However, in the “Tuskegee Study” in the US, these principles were grossly violated. The task of this paper is to critically examine the ethical implications of that study on future practices in biomedical research, and to suggest ways of ensuring that such practices comply with appropriate ethical values. Key Words Bioethics, Biomedical research, clinical research, Tuskegee Study, paternalism, morality Introduction From time to time human beings experience health challenges, whether physical or mental. On its part, medical practice has made considerable progress towards combating or controlling many of these challenges. It is through research that the nature, symptoms and effects of ailments can be ascertained and remedies discovered. Medical researchers engage in both therapeutic and non-therapeutic research. Therapeutic research is that carried out with the purpose of treating disease. On the other hand, non-therapeutic...
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...The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Some Ethical Reflections 75 The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Some Ethical Reflections Adebayo A. Ogungbure Department of Philosophy University of Ibadan, Nigeria philosopher.bayo@yahoo.com Thought and Practice: A Journal of the Philosophical Association of Kenya (PAK) New Series, Vol.3 No.2, December 2011, pp.75-92 thoughtandpractice@gmail.com http://ajol.info/index.php/tp/index Abstract There are established ethical principles to protect human participants in biomedical research from undue exploitation by researchers. However, in the “Tuskegee Study” in the US, these principles were grossly violated. The task of this paper is to critically examine the ethical implications of that study on future practices in biomedical research, and to suggest ways of ensuring that such practices comply with appropriate ethical values. Key Words Bioethics, Biomedical research, clinical research, Tuskegee Study, paternalism, morality Introduction From time to time human beings experience health challenges, whether physical or mental. On its part, medical practice has made considerable progress towards combating or controlling many of these challenges. It is through research that the nature, symptoms and effects of ailments can be ascertained and remedies discovered. Medical researchers engage in both therapeutic and non-therapeutic research. Therapeutic research is that carried out with the purpose of treating disease. On the other hand...
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...ethical concerns, including the issue of informed consent and how consent is obtained, selection of participants in research, the welfare of human subjects involved in a research project, what the goals of research ought to be, and what ought to constitute proper procedure for an ethical research. These issues are central to an aspect of applied ethics which is now commonly referred to as research ethics. The aim of research ethics is to ensure that research projects involving human subjects are carried out without causing harm to the subjects involved. In addition, it provides a sort of regulatory framework which ensures that human participants in research are not exploited either physically or psychologically. The need for ethical guidelines for biomedical research is expressed in some of the questions research ethicists are concerned about, including the following: • What are appropriate clinical endpoints that should trigger the termination of a trial? • Are placebo controls defensible in trials with terminally ill patients? • Can there be such a thing as true clinical equipoise? • Is it acceptable to enrol women of childbearing...
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