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Plant Paper

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Pathophysiology NU290
Exam I
Guided Review * Identify the components of the cell and their functions. * Cell Membrane: Provides isolation, protection, and support. Controls entrance/exit of materials * Cilia: Moves materials over cell surface * Microvilli: Increases SA * Centrioles: Essential for movement of chromosomes during cell division. * Ribosomes: Synthesizes proteins * ER: Communication system; metabolic function * Lysosomes: Removes damaged organelles or pathogens within cells * Mitochondria: Produces 95% of the ATP required by the cell. “power plant” transforms organic compounds into energy. Energy is stored as ATP * Nucleus: stores DNA, stores/processes genetic info; controls protein synthesis * Nucleolus: Synthesizes RNA and assembles ribosomal subunits * Golgi complex/apparatus: Works with ER to process substances into secretory granules or vesicles * Explain cell life cycle. * Interphase * Interval between cell divisions * Perform normal cellular functions * Mitosis * Prophase: Chromosomes coil and shorten, nuclear membrane dissolves. Each chromosome is made up of a pair of strands called chromatid * Metaphase: Centromeres divide, pulling chromosomes apart. Centromeres align themselves in the middle of the spindle. * Anaphase: The centromeres begin to separate and pull the newly replicated chromosomes toward opposite sides of the cell. By the end there are 46 chromosomes on each side of the cell. * Telophase- A new membrane forms around each 46 chromosomes. The spindle fiver disappear, cytokinesis occurs, and the cytoplasm divides, producing two identical new daughters cells. * Apoptosis: Cellular death * Meiosis: Reproduction of sex cells (sperm/ova)

* Describe cell metabolism and energy sources: anaerobic and aerobic. * Cell metabolism is a chemical process where: * Fats, proteins, CHO are converted from the foods we eat into the energy for cell function * Breakdown occurs over 3 major reaction pathways * Step 1: Glycolysis * Step 2: The Krebs of Citric Acid Cycle * Step 3: Electron transport/ OXPHOS * *Requires production of ATP through these pathways. * Anerobic Metabolism: NO OXYGEN!! * Glycolosis- (Uses 2 ATP to produce 4 ATP =net of 2 ATP) * Glycolytic pathway occurs in the cytoplasm when mitrochondira lack oxygen * In the absence of oxygen, GLUCOSE is converted to PYRUVIC ACID which undergoes FERMENTATION, producing ATP and LACTIC ACID. * Is reversible when oxygen is reintroduced. * Aerobic Metabolism * Supplies MOST of energy for the body * Citric acid cycle/Krebs cycle (occurs in mitochondria) creates NADH and FADH2; High energy molecules created for use in electron transport cycle and a net of 2 ATP molecules. * Electron transport cycle/ OXPHOS (occurs in mitochondria) produces 32 ATP!!! * Electrons from NADH and FADH2 cycle across membrane of mitochondria to produce ATP * Describe membrane transport * Membrane Transport * Exchange of nutrients, fluids, and chemical messages between intracellular and extracellular compartments * 2 Types of Membrane transport * Passive: Natural exchange of water and molecules across plasma membrane via OSMOSIS and DIFFUSION * No energy needed!!! * Types of Passive transport: a. Diffusion: Movement of solute molecules from area of greater solute concentration to an area of lesser solute concentration i. Lipid-Soluble molecules (CO2, ALCOHOL, FATTY ACIDS) diffuse through the cell membrane 1. Ex: Lungs b. Facilitated Diffusion: Occurs down a concentration gradient (from higher concentration to lower concentration) via transporter proteins ii. No ENERGY NEEDED!!! c. Osmosis: Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration (low solute) to an area of low water (higher solute) concentration iii. Water follows solutes: 2. Hypertonic: Tons of solutes (dehydration) 3. Hypotonic: To much H20, few solutes 4. Isotonic: Equal solutes and water d. Filtraton: Hydrostatic pressure * Active Transport * Requires energy!! * Substance-specific receptors recognize and bind with specific substances * Used for large molecules that cant pass through pores * Use for ligand-bound receptors on plasma membrane * signal conduction and the mechanism for membrane potentials. * Describe cell to cell adhesions. * Cell adhesion is the interaction of a cell with a neighboring cell or with the underlying extracellular matrix. * 3 Specialized cell junctions: * Occluding: (lumen of gut) * Anchoring: Hold cardiac cells together with expansion/contraction. * Communicating (heart muscle; action potential moves from cell to cell causing the heart to beat) * Extracellular matrix: * Collagen * Elastin * Fibronectin * Identify and describe the four types of body tissues. 1) Connective tissue: MOST ABUNDANT!! * Function: Support the body and bind or connect together all types of tissue. * Types * Loose, recticular, dense connective tissue, bone, cartilage, adipose. 2) Muscle tissue i. Skeletal (voluntary) 1. Most abundant muscle tissue!!! 2. 40-45% of body weight 3. attached to bones by tendons 3) Nervous tissue ii. Afferent (sensory) carry signals to the CNS iii. Efferant (motor) carry signals AWAY from the CNS iv. Control of muscle fibers, endocrine and exocrine glands a. Receives and transmits electrical impulses b. Impulse transmission occurs across synapses via neurotransmission c. Receives and transmits electrical

4) Epithelial tissue d. Types: simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar ciliated, Transitional, Stratified squamous v. Structure: Sheets of tissue vi. Functions: 4. Line major structures of the body: stomach, esophagus, intestine, ducts, glands, ovaries, skin, capillaries, etc. 5. -------------------------------------------------
Boundary/ protection, sensory, transportation, absorption, secretion/lubrication, movement

Pathophys: 5) Describe the cellular adaptations occurring in atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, dysplasia, and metaplasia. Identify the conditions under which each can occur. e. Atrophy: Reduced cellular size, reduced cell size. vii. Most common cells that atrophy 6. Skeletal muscles, heart, secondary sex organs, brain viii. Pathophysiology R/t: 7. Disuse, denervation, loss of endocrine function, inadequate nutrition, ischemia f. Hyptertrophy: Increase in cellular size ix. Common cells prone to hypertrophy 8. Cardiac-from compensation r/t ineffective function of areas of the heart 9. Skeletal: can enlarge r/t exercise (normal) x. Disease related too: 10. Hormonal stimulation 11. Increased use (functional demand) 12. Compensation for organ loss g. Hyperplasia: Number of cells increase xi. Most commonly due to excessive hormonal stimulation. Hyperplasia and hypertrophy often occur together. xii. Cells that undergo hyperplasia 13. Epidermal: Skin 14. Intestinal epithelium 15. Glandular 16. NOT NERVE, SKELETAL, OR CARDIAC B/C it cannot undergo mitosis!!!! xiii. Compensatory (increased functional demand) 17. Example: Liver, thyroid xiv. Hormonal 18. Example: h. Metaplasia: Change of cell type xv. Function: Usually occurs in response to a chronic irritation from noxious stimuli and allows for substitution of cells that are better able to survive under circumstance in which a ore fragile cell type might succumb. BUT the cells will not change beyond the boundaries of the primary group of tissue 19. Example: Lung i. Dysplasia: When cells show variances in their size, shape, and nuclei are larger then normal xvi. Example: Papsmears j. Anaplasia/Neoplasia xvii. Anaplaysia: Undifferentiated cells that vary in structure and reproduction: CANCER xviii. Neoplasia 20. New growth 21. Benign or malignant 6) Identify the mechanism of cellular injury from hypoxia, free radicals, chemicals, injuries, infectious agents, immunologic and inflammatory responses. k. Cell Injury- Hypoxia xix. O2 deprivation in the cell, interrupts oxidative metabolism and generation of ATP 22. Ischemia- Decreased blood flow, most common form of hypoxic injury. 23. Anoxia-Complete cut off of oxygen—death!!! 7) Identify various cellular accumulations occurring in response to injury and the subsequent manifestations of cellular damage. 8) Identify the major types of cellular necrosis and cite examples of tissues involved in each type. 9) Compare and contrast necrosis and apoptosis. 10) Explore the agents of infectious disease 11) Describe the mechanisms of infection that includes the portals of entry, sources of infection, symptomatology, the disease course, sites of infection and virulence factors. 12) Describe the diagnosis and treatment of infectious disease 13) Describe immunity and the normal immune response 14) Describe the components of the immune system and their function. 15) Name the types of immunoglobulins and describe their basic function. 16) Distinguish between natural and acquired immunity. 17) Define and describe humoral and cell-mediated immunity. 18) Differentiate between a primary and secondary immune response. 19) Describe mechanisms of hypersensitivity. 20) Describe the likely causes of auto-immunity and alloimmunity diseases; cite examples. 21) Characterize immunodeficiencies; primary/secondary. 22) Cite causes, consequences, and examples of acquired or secondary immune deficiencies. 23) Discuss nature of HIV/AIDS and its progression. 24) Discuss the alterations in immunity for infants, children, and older adults. 25) Define inflammation and state the major limitations of the response. 26) Discuss the microscopic findings in inflammation and relate those to the macroscopic manifestations of an inflammatory response. 27) Discuss each of the cell types involved in the inflammation response by role and relative importance to the process. 28) Differentiate between local and systemic responses to acute inflammation on the basis of clinical manifestations. 29) Identify the histologic characteristics of chronic inflammation. 30) Describe tissue healing by primary and secondary intention. 31) Describe the different types of dysfunctional wound healing. 32) Identify the types/characteristics of burns and how they heal.

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