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Fabiola Burandt

Wpływ dwujęzyczności na zdolności językowe i poznawcze.

Wiele badań prowadzonych przez naukowców dotyczy często badań monolingualizmu, jednak są niejednokrotnie błędnie interpretowane, gdyż nie bierze się pod uwagę faktu, że jest dość powszechnym, aby ludzie nabywali umiejętności w swoim życiu dzięki posługiwaniu się drugim językiem.

Przykładem w tej kwestii mogą być dzieci, które uczą się innych języków wraz z wejściem do szkoły oraz otrzymaniem statusu ucznia. Podobnie, możemy brać pod uwagę osoby, które są wystawione na długie działanie drugiego języka, zarówno dorosłych jak i dzieci, poprzez emigrację, adopcję lub życie w innym społeczeństwie przez krótki okres czasu, np. studia za granicą, podróżowanie lub interesy międzynarodowe. Wystawienie jednostek na działanie innego języka stało się wydarzeniem zglobalizowanym i raczej nieodwracalnym. Mimo tak wielkiego spektrum działania innych języków na poszczególne osoby, ciężko jest określić odsetek ludzi bilingualnych w skali światowej.

Jak należy rozumieć pojęcie bilingualizmu? Typowo myśląc o osobie nazywanej bilingualną mamy na myśli osobę, która mówi oraz rozumie dwa języki. Często jednak są osoby, które nie mogą zostać przypisane do tej definicji posiadając tylko pewne umiejętności, np. czytania języka bez jego mówienia itp. Biorąc pod uwagę bilingualizm powinniśmy też rozważyć stopień zaawansowania osoby posługującej się dwoma językami. Procesy poznawcze są tu często warunkowane tym, jaki kontakt z danym językiem jednostka posiada, tj. czas kontaktu z językiem, częstotliwość używania języka, itd.

Ze względu na wiele aspektów wpływających na znajomość i użycie języka nie dziwi fakt, iż każda jednostka będzie w różnym stopniu posiadać biegłość języka. Bycie wystawionym na działanie języka w różnoraki sposób będzie warunkowało to, w jaki sposób język zostanie przez daną osobę nabyty i jakie umiejętności będą lepiej rozwinięte, np. słuchanie, mówienie, czytanie.

Należałoby również rozważyć, w jaki sposób stopień zaawansowania jest użyty, aby określić bilingualizm. Nieprzerwalna natura umiejętności językowych wśród osób dwujęzycznych prowadzi do badań, gdyż naukowcy muszą podejmować decyzje o tym, kogo wykluczyć lub zawrzeć w kategorii dwujęzyczności. Umowny punkt ustalenia biegłości językowej jest dość problematyczny, ponieważ nieuchronnie wyklucza jednostki z kategorii dwujęzyczności. Należy również pamiętać o tym, że dwujęzyczność u takich osób pozostaje niestabilna, gdyż często tracą one biegłość w języku ojczystym przenosząc się do środowiska używanego częściej języka.

Oprócz różnych rodzajów i poziomów biegłości językowej, musimy również wziąć pod uwagę różnice socjolingwistycznych doświadczeń osób dwujęzycznych. Oczywiście, czynniki te, są nierozerwalnie związane z poziomem znajomości języka. Jednakże, różnice w czynnikach socjolingwistycznych mogą również przyczyniać się do różnic w języku i zdolności poznawczych w wyjątkowy sposób poza znajomości języka. Dla przykładu: dwujęzyczne dzieci różnią się, w zależności od tego, jak bardzo są one narażone na działanie różnych kultur, jak intensywnie uczestniczą w środowiskach, w których tylko jeden język jest używany lub środowiskach, w których oba języki są używane. Na początku XX wieku przeważała opinia, że nauka dwóch języków myli dzieci i prowadzi do deficytów językowych. Na poparcie tego punktu widzenia, naukowcy znaleźli dowody opóźnień językowych dzieci dwujęzycznych, takie jak uboższe słownictwo, słabsze umiejętności gramatyczne. Po za tymi badaniami, nie było dowodów deficytów poznawczych u dzieci dwujęzycznych. Ponadto, badania te były niekompetentne. Brano pod uwagę dzieci, które zostały wystawione na ograniczony kontakt z drugim językiem, co wpłynęło na wynik testów, jako że były one właśnie w drugim języku. Nie zbadano także biegłości językowej ani statusu społeczno-ekonomicznego, co podważyło ważność badania. Dzięki ciągłym postępom dokonywanym przez naukowców zdolności poznawcze oraz zrozumienie różnic między jednojęzycznymi i dwujęzycznymi grupami są jaśniejsze.

W wyraźnym przeciwieństwie do pierwszych opinii na temat dwujęzyczności, późniejsza praca i badania dowodzą, że dwujęzyczność nie prowadzi do ogólnych opóźnień językowych lub deficytów. Jedną z największych innowacji w tym kierunku było badanie na umiejętności językowych dziecka dwujęzycznego w obu językach, zamiast każdego języka osobno. W trakcie badania stwierdzono, że dzieci dwujęzyczne mają zazwyczaj mniejszy zasób słownictwa w każdym z języków niż ich jednojęzyczni rówieśnicy. Ważne jest również, aby zauważyć, że w tych badania dzieci dwujęzyczne nie tylko dokonują translacji odpowiedników w obu językach. Zamiast tego, łączna liczba unikatowych słów dzieci dwujęzycznych równa się liczbie słów wyprodukowanych przez dzieci jednojęzyczne według tego samego harmonogramu rozwojowego.

W innej pracy, naukowcy odkryli, że osoby dwujęzyczne są wolniejsze w pozyskiwaniu leksyki niż osoby jednojęzyczne. Istnieją jednak dowody, że posługiwanie się dwoma językami przyczynia się do większej świadomości metajęzykowej w grupach bilingualnych – mają poszerzone rozumienie arbitralnej natury językowej, lepsze umiejętności w podejmowaniu opinii gramatycznych, większą świadomość fonematyczną. Ponieważ dwujęzyczne osoby ukazują zalety w niektórych obszarach, a wady w innych, nie możemy stwierdzić, że dwujęzyczność prowadzi do ogólnego deficytu językowego. Zamiast tego, różnice między umiejętnościami językowymi osób jedno i dwujęzycznych są

Podobnie do umiejętności językowych, opinia publiczna na temat wpływu dwujęzyczności na funkcje poznawcze zmieniła się znacząco w ostatnich dziesięcioleciach. Zmiana ta wywołana została przez Peal’a i Lambert’a , gdzie porównano dzieci dwujęzyczne i jednojęzyczne pod kątem wydajności w testach na inteligencję. Testy te były wykonane w językach, w których komunikowały się badane dzieci - angielskim oraz francuskim. Dodatkowo były warunkowane poprzez ich status socjoekonomiczny. Ku zaskoczeniu badaczy, dwujęzyczna grupa badanych wypadła lepiej w teście nie tylko w zadaniach słownych, ale również w zadaniach werbalnych i niewerbalnych. Okazało się, że dzieci dwujęzyczne poradziły sobie świetnie z testem, pokazując tym samym, że elastyczność poznawcza u dzieci dwujęzycznych rozwija się lepiej. Istnieje coraz więcej dowodów, że dwujęzyczne osoby mają tendencje do lepszego przystosowywania się niż osoby jednojęzyczne.
Osoby wykazać większą elastyczność poznawczą niż osób jednojęzycznych.
Definiowanie elastyczności poznawczej jest trudne, biorąc pod uwagę wiele różnych sposobów, w jaki to ten termin jest używany w różnych badaniach. W ogólności, jest elastyczność poznawczych używane do opisania zdolności poszczególnych osób dwujęzycznych 'przełączać się między różnymi zadaniami i dobre wyniki w zadaniach, które zawierają sprzeczne lub wprowadzające w błąd sygnały. Na przykład, dowód że dwujęzyczność sprzyja umiejętności przełączania zadań oraz w negocjowaniu sprzeczne sygnały zawiera doskonałą wydajność dwujęzycznych dzieci w karty typu zmian wymiarowych

References
Arsenian, S. (1937). Bilingualism and Mental Development. New York: Teachers College
Press.
Ben-Zeev, S. (1977). The influence of bilngualism on cognitive strategy and cognitive development. Child Development, 48, 1009-1018.
Bialystok, E. (1988). Levels of bilingualism and levels of linguistic awareness. Child
Development, 57, 498-510.

Bialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in development: language, literacy, and cognition.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Darcy, N. T. (1953). A review of the literature on the effects of bilingualism upon the measurement of intelligence. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 82, 21-57.
Macnamara, J. (1966). Bilingualism and primary education. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.
Nicoladis, E., & Genesee, F. (1997). Language development in preschool bilingual children. Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 21, 258-270.
Peal, E., & Lambert, W. E. (1962). The relation of bilingualism to intelligence.
Psychological Monographs, 76, 1-26.
Pearson, B. Z., Fernández, S., & Oller, D. K. (1993). Lexical development in bilingual babies and toddlers: Comparison to monolingual norms. Language Learning,
43(1), 93-120.
Umbel, V. M., Pearson, B. Z., Fernández, M. C., & Ollie, D. K. (1992). Measuring bilingual children's receptive vocabularies. Child Development, 63, 1012-1020.

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Essay On Language And Language

...Language Discussion Psychologists refer language to as an activity that helps people communicate and express thoughts (Sternberg, et al, 370). On the other hand, linguistics focus on the formal approach of language in a system which may be even irrelevant. Psycholinguistics refers language to a system of communication which is either written or spoken that uses words or signs to passing information across a particular community (Bailey 54). Users of a particular language culture with the use of symbols with meanings to share information. According to Hockett all languages used by human beings have common features called linguistic universals. Human beings and animals communicate differently; human language contains 13 features of linguistic...

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