...Origins of Psychology Abstract “Psychology has a long past but only a short history.” This simple almost satirical statement by Hermann Ebbinghaus is key to understanding the history and underpinnings of modern psychology. From a flawed seventh century B.C. experiment by the King of Egypt to Socrates, Plato, Hume, Liebniz, and others, psychology has a very long past but only a short scientific history. Philosophical Background In the seventh century B.C., the King of Egypt conducted what many, including psychology historian Morton Hunt, consider to be the first psychology experiment. Though flawed and rudimentary, the king tested his idea that thoughts and language came from the mind. Although unscientific, the idea of the minds overall ability to do more was put to the test. Socrates (460-399 B.C.) often considered and referred to as a father of philosophy, stated “One thing only I know and that is I know nothing.” This realization came when he concluded that philosophy can only begin when one learns to doubt, particularly the thoughts and ideals that each individual holds dear and sacred. In short, real philosophy cannot start until one’s mind begins to examine itself. Again the mind is central and paramount. To modern psychology he gave the Socratic Method of questioning, which demanded definitions...
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...Jessica Hamilton English 307 1/11/12 Response Essay “ Roland Barthes' “The Death of the Author” In his essay, “ The Death of the Author”, Roland Barthes argues against the classic criticism. He argues that classic criticism imposes limits upon the text itself by focusing on the author rather than the text. He argues that writing is the “ destruction of every voice, of every point of origin.” (Barthes 185) Barthes argues that there is no such thing as an author. He believes that there is only a scriptor whose ideas are not entirely original. Barthes also argues that because the author has numerous influences, we as readers and critics can never know the true influences. Barthes argues that it is necessary to analysis the linguistics of the text because it is not a voice that speaks but the language. He goes further to point out that it is only in the reader that the text has any meaning and because of this the presence of the author is minimized because the text becomes open to numerous interpretations that the author may not have originally intended. Barthes also implies that the death of the author makes the reader more significant because they become the creative force of the text rather than the author. Barthes also argues that the moment “ the author enters into his own death, writing begins.” (Barthes 185) Within “ The Death of the Author”, Barthes issues the question of “who is speaking”. (Barthes 185) He highlights his theory with his example of Sarrasine by...
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...Work and Well-Being How and to what extent does positive affect influence organizational citizenship behaviours? January 2006 Introduction This essay is broken down into various sections to develop the ‘building blocks’ upon which we can provide an answer to the question. In section 1, we will look at the core constructs of ‘positive affect’ (PA) and ‘organizational citizenship behaviours’ (OCBs). In section 2, we will answer the question of how PA influences OCBs by looking at some of the main theories and models. In section 3, the extent to which PA influences OCBs will be considered by reviewing the empirical evidence. Finally, section 4 attempts to draw conclusions and provides an overall discussion. Section 1 - Definitions This section looks at the constructs of ‘positive affect’ and ‘organizational citizenship behaviours’. Positive Affect (PA) Between the 1930s, when it started to emerge as a construct of interest to organizational research, and the mid-1980s, affect at work was construed almost exclusively in terms of job satisfaction (Brief & Weiss, 2002). However, Organ & Near (1985) argued that job satisfaction has both a cognitive (belief, judgement, comparison) as well as an affective (emotional, feeling) dimension, whereas most measures of job satisfaction tended to focus on the cognitive element. This distinction is important: Weiss & Cropanzano (1996) see affective experiences...
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...How much position and personnel power do leaders need to be effective? Power has been the subject of much research. The purpose of this essay is to establish how much power leaders need to be effective. Although effective leaders rely more on personal power than on position power, some position is important in order to get the job done. The amount and type of power required depends on the situation, whether the influence is upward, downward or lateral, whether goal congruence exists, the size and make-up of the group as well as the targeted outcome (compliance or commitment). Too much position power should be avoided as it can lead to abuse of the power and hence negative outcomes, yet too little position power will limit a leader from being effective. Also research has found complex interrelations between power bases. Effective leaders need a moderate amount of position power to make decisions, implement changes and punish ongoing belligerent behaviour and they need fairly high level personal power to create relationships, trust and respect and persuade target persons of the benefits of undertaking a task or project and therefore obtain commitment rather than simple compliance. While effective leaders have great skills in influencing target persons, they must also be receptive to influence from others. Leadership is about influencing people to achieve the objectives and goals of the organisation, tasks or projects. Effective leaders influence subordinates to carry out their...
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...The differences between the genders’ approaches towards intimacy and interpersonal bonds is one that continues to be extensively studied in psychology. Gender has always provided us with a perspective through which we interpret the world, mainly love and sexuality. These two aforementioned features are intricately entwined and have heavily influenced much of extant research which attempts to explain the impact of love and sexuality on a sociobiological level and on the formation of gender expectations. This essay aims to investigate and explain how attitudes with respect to relationships are affected by gender. In order to achieve this, a compilation of studies that assess the correlation between interpersonal relationships and gender will be considered. Finally, the essay will discuss possible ideas for future development in this field. Although a fine line exists between love, lust and attraction, these three components are often misinterpreted for one another. The need to belong is an evolutionary human instinct, and one that characterises an individual’s chances of survival. It is essential to acknowledge the common attributes of the three preceding elements which determine relationship statuses, so a clearer understanding can be achieved when considering the dissimilarities in attitudes between the genders. Conventionally, love has always been thought to be undemanding and trivial whereas attraction, or borderline infatuation, is affiliated with connections on a deeper...
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...SAMPLE ESSAY Essential Academic Skills Second Edition Edited by Kathy Turner, Brenda Krenus, Lynette Ireland and Leigh Pointon Oxford University Press 2011 COPYRIGHT NOTICE © THIS SAMPLE ESSAY IS COPYRIGHT OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2011. DISTRIBUTION AND COPYING IS PROHIBITED. Sample essay Topic: Test anxiety causes university students to underperform in their examinations. Discuss. Note: The essay is in the left column. In the right-hand column are short notes indicating which academic writing skills are being used in the essay, and page references for the textbook. Essay Comment This essay examines the relationship between test anxiety in university students INTRODUCTION General statement and their performance in examinations. Typically, universities use examinations of the essay topic (p. to test part or even all the knowledge of students, particularly in first-year 151) courses. As Burns (2004, p. 120) noted, examination results can determine if a Background from student passes a course or can progress onto further study, and may even the literature (p. 151) influence employment opportunities. Understandably, educators are concerned Sentence(s) to link that examinations are a fair indication of a student’s knowledge. One area of the background into the essay special interest is the role anxiety plays in relation to examination performance. ARGUMENT This essay argues that in general, test anxiety lowers performance slightly...
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...SAMPLE ESSAY Essential Academic Skills Second Edition Edited by Kathy Turner, Brenda Krenus, Lynette Ireland and Leigh Pointon Oxford University Press 2011 COPYRIGHT NOTICE © THIS SAMPLE ESSAY IS COPYRIGHT OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2011. DISTRIBUTION AND COPYING IS PROHIBITED. Sample essay Topic: Test anxiety causes university students to underperform in their examinations. Discuss. Note: The essay is in the left column. In the right-hand column are short notes indicating which academic writing skills are being used in the essay, and page references for the textbook. Essay Comment This essay examines the relationship between test anxiety in university students INTRODUCTION General statement and their performance in examinations. Typically, universities use examinations of the essay topic (p. to test part or even all the knowledge of students, particularly in first-year 151) courses. As Burns (2004, p. 120) noted, examination results can determine if a Background from student passes a course or can progress onto further study, and may even the literature (p. 151) influence employment opportunities. Understandably, educators are concerned Sentence(s) to link that examinations are a fair indication of a student’s knowledge. One area of the background into the essay special interest is the role anxiety plays in relation to examination performance. ARGUMENT This essay argues that in general, test anxiety lowers performance slightly, STATEMENT Comprehensive although this...
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...context. Social learning can be applied to many scenarios ranging from a group of children collaboratively trying to solve the question of how to make a kite, to a university professor writing a research paper with a colleague, both illustrate the case of a social side to learning. On the other hand some people believe that learning is an individual process, such as reading, researching and searching online, and the social element only occurs when you engage with your network. This essay will discuss both arguments, but focus strongly on the contention that daily observations and experiences, as well as many academic theories suggest that learning takes place beyond the confines of the individual mind, and is therefore a very social process. Learning and social process are defined in various ways. The Collins Dictionary (2012) defines learning as knowledge gained by study; instruction or scholarship, the act of gaining knowledge. It also provides a more specific definition with relation to psychology being any relevant permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a direct result of experience. Further to this both the Oxford and Collins Dictionaries (2012) offer the definition of social process as societal change. Some thinkers associate this with socialisation, socialisation is social learning. During different stages of our lives, we belong to different groups and as these change and develop we learn new rules and patterns of behaviour. We also don’t remain in the same role...
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...Table of Content: Page Number Answer 3 Appendix 6 Refences 7 Career theory has begun since the early 20th century. As the changing nature of world, career theory experiences major transition from time to time to achieve an applicable theory. This essay will discuss and analyse the literature about career theory in the early 21st Century. Sonnenfeld (1982) has described career theory as theory which attempts to explain occupational variables such as type of job and income or psychological variables such as job satisfaction and job-related stress. Career development began from Frank Parsons’ work where he predicts a person’s career choices from the his characteristics, including self-knowledge, career planning and “true reasoning”(Patton et al, 2006). Later, several aptitude tests were used in the assessment of unemployed workers which led to the development of trait-factor approaches. Fitzgerald (1992) suggested that the trait-factor approach can be attributed to the combination of Parsons matching models with the concepts and technology of individual differences. As consequences, trait-factor theory implies on the match or fit between individual’s characteristics and work environment , emphasizing on the relationship between knowledge about self and knowledge about environment (Betz, 1989). Collin (1986) has argued that the major thrust in career theory has centred on individual rather than on contextual factors. However, Holland’s...
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...leaders is that many theories and models have been based on Western perspectives (House and Aditya, 1997, p.409) and typically based on research with white males (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, CIPD, 2008, p.7). There is some cultural crossover in servant leadership, which according to Northouse (2013, p.219), was originally proposed by Greenleaf in the 1970s, and also has origins in ancient Eastern and Western philosophies; for example, it is deeply embedded in Arab-Islamic culture (Sarayrah, 2004, p.59). A further concern is raised by Mullins (2008, p.265) who states that determining who is a ‘good leader’ is a subjective judgement and cannot be based, for example, on financial performance alone. The aim of the following essay is to investigate whether certain characteristics are related to good leadership and which can be identified in theories and models of leadership such as trait theory, transformational and...
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...Describe a recent innovation, and discuss its social and economic impacts. In modern times, the majority of people worldwide have incorporated the use of new and evolving technology in daily living. Consequently, it has and continued to change the way we work, interact and learn. The internet is a vital medium that has affected us both economically and socially. This essay will focus on the economic and social impacts of the internet as a recent innovation. Innovations, whether in the form of technology, organizations or products, result in the application of research, technology, and the economic potential of business assimilated with the needs of the consumers (Kerchev, 2011). These promote the development and improvement of consumers’ lifestyle. An example of an important innovation is the internet, which was introduced in 1982. It had the concept of an interconnected system of networks to share information. Historically, communication was limited and information was once a valuable and expensive resource, specifically in remote regions of the world. Over the last two decades, the internet was developed dramatically, leading to an increased significance of its use. It enabled us a new form of communicating, obtaining information, and predominantly how we live our lives. The internet has made remarkable changes on the economy in both positive and negative sides. Primarily, it serves as a catalyst for global growth. It created opportunities for businesses in marketing...
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...Critically evaluate the theory of mind hypothesis of autism Childhood Autism is a rare and severe developmental disorder that affects about 4 in every 10,000 children (Baron-Cohen, Leslie & Frith, 1985). Autism affects how an individual communicates, socialises and even how they make sense of the world around them. Many theories have tried to explain what causes autism in an attempt to achieve greater understanding of the disorder and potentially aid those with autism to live happier and more fulfilling lives. In this essay I will be focusing on the symptoms of autism, the ‘theory of mind’ hypothesis and its strengths and weaknesses. The three main symptoms of autism were outlined by Wing and Gould (1979) and are known as the triad of impairments. These three impairments were identified as communication, socialisation and imagination. Many studies have found a distinct lack of communication skills in autistic children. Prior et al. (1998) found that autistic infants don’t attempt ‘babbling’ and they don’t follow the usual patterns of language development displayed by most infants, such as being able to speak simple one syllable words by the age of one, which over half of autistic children don’t do. Then, even when they begin to form understandable sentences, they often make grammatical errors and fail to use or comprehend emotional tone. This impairment of communication, both verbal and non-verbal, most likely plays a part in a lack of social understanding and stable...
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...linked productivity with economic reward and put forward the concept that worker are motivated primarily through pay or ''economic reward''. This concept of Fredrick has been accepted by management all over the world and still holds true for many business where productivity is linked to sales and then to economic rewards. [ (Locke, 1982, pp. 14-24) ]. Mayo conducted experiments between 1927 and 1937, that later came to be known as hawthorn experiments and came to the conclusion that physical, economic and social environment can effect workers productivity. These experiments were criticized by a number of theorist including Alex Cary, in the ''American sociological review (1976)'', and as such I won't be using them extensively for this essay. Abraham Maslow on the other hand came up with a more general approach to motivation, his theory came to be known as the 'hierarchy of needs', which stated that as one tier of need is fulfilled another tier of needs will emerge and thus motivate the workers to achieve them. The second set of theories are called critical theories and the most important theorist in this category is Karl Marx. One of the key assumptions that Marx made was that under capitalism,...
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...What is the role of the reserve army of labor Marx? How would you gauge Marx's approach in relation to the theories of effective demand developed by Kalecki and Keynes? Throughout economic theory, there are various responses to the creation and subsequent role of unemployment and the wage rate. In Karl Marx’s theory, unemployment, or the ‘reserve army of labour’, is necessary for capitalism to regenerate itself, and is also what determines the wage rate. For John Maynard Keynes and Michael Kalecki, unemployment is caused by the failure of effective demand. This essay will first demonstrate Marx’s approach to employment through the study of the reserve army of labour and the cyclical tendencies of the capitalist system, and then Keynes and Kalecki’s theories of effective demand which led to the proposition that the economy ‘will not settle at full employment equilibrium; by and large it will not even reach it except by chance’ (Halevi, 2007, week 7, p. 8). For Marx, unemployment, or the reserve army of labour, is a ‘necessary requirement for capital accumulation’ (Halevi, 2007, week 4, p. 2), linked to fluctuations in the wage rate and thus the rate of profit. The existence of a large reserve army of labour keeps wages down, because there are many unemployed workers available and willing to work for little money. Like the classical economists, Marx contends that low wages mean capitalists reduce their costs of production, resulting in a higher rate of profit and...
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...assumes that physical world can be predicted by physical law including human consciousness, which is also known as determinism. Following those debates there comes a moral dilemma: How are we to assign responsibility for our actions if they are caused totally by external environment and passed events (Baer 128)? The underlying problem is, do humans actually have free will? If so, to what extent are humans able to control themselves? The fundamental controversy of free will and determinism, which represents the question of whether freedom of human mind exists, has been debated by numerous scientists and philosophers. This essay will firstly have a brief review on the arguments and viewpoints of free will and determinism of several philosophers, including Blatchford, Hospers and Taylor. Following this, it will compare those assumptions to each other. Finally, the essay will give the author’s own thoughts and debates on this issue. 1. Blatchford’s Arguments Against Free Will Blatchford claims that human will is not free, and is something inside the man. He is opposed to the free will party’s assumption, which argues that human is responsible for his acts because he is free to act as he choose to act. He first raises a question: if the man’s will is totally free, then who is eventually responsible for the...
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