...Over the past 60 years, Female genital mutilation (FGM), the process of altering female genitalia, has been condemned by the Western world for a being an inhuman and oppressive tradition in need of abolishment. At the age of puberty, women living in communities that practice FGM are subject to a forced circumcision procedure that often leads to lifelong physical and psychological implications. As such, anti-FGM discourse universalises the image of the ‘normal” female body by framing female circumcision as a barbaric human rights violation. In doing so, the Western world often fails to acknowledge the practice’s deep rooted cultural significance that have made women “prisoners of ritual”. It will be argued that in order to adequately resolve...
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...Junior Research Paper There are wide variations of traditional and religious practices worldwide, from the Japanese tea ceremony, to circumcision in underdeveloped countries. These customs, have been around for centuries and continue to be important aspects of everyday life. However, as today's society continues to progress, these traditions are questioned. The dreadful reality and unjust qualities of the practices have been revealed, as more information and research is conducted. Circumcision is a custom, highly common amongst women in 3rd world countries, and is used for numerous cases. Circumcision is the surgical process of removing skin surrounding the tip of a newborn male sexual organ. This surgical process is legal, and commonly safe in different parts of the world, including the United States and other developed countries. “For some families, circumcision is a religious ritual. Circumcision can also be a matter of family tradition, personal hygiene or preventive health care.” Circumcision may be a risky process, but the benefits far exceed the risks if done properly. Improved hygienics, is a huge beneficial factor of male circumcision. The process makes it easier for males to cleanse...
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...Fatima Said, of Americas Top Model, defiantly put female genital cutting in the minds of Americans and people around the world. She opened up a topic that many people had no idea about, and now are very interested in knowing more about. This essay will give a brief history of Somalia (Fatima’s home country), and then it will go into female genital cutting in Somalia. Somalia is a country in eastern Africa. The countries of Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Kenya surround it. Somalis are thought to have been decedents from Africans and Arab people. The main languages in Somalia are Arabic, Italian and English. Islam is practiced through out the region. The majorities of Somalis are livestock herders and cultivate the land that they have. (www.cia.gov). Somalia became independent and its own country in 1960, when it got independence from England and Italy. Somalia has not had a stable government between 1991 and 2000. However, during 2000 a parliamentary government was formed but later on expired in 2003. In 2004, a new parliament was organized and a president was elected- Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed. Since 1991, Somalia has been overwhelmed with chaos and anarchy. Somalia had gone through a difficult time in 1992 when a drought happened in Africa and was combined with a civil war. Somalia went through an intense famine that killed approximately 300,000 people. (www.cia.gov). There were many efforts done by the United Stated and the United Nations to help Somalia get through the drought and...
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...Female Circumcision Human Rights? We all have them, don’t we? That is the question I had to ask myself repeatedly while reading about this controversial issue. How far can or should you take the issue when dealing with cultural traditions? Over the past 3 weeks, I have done a lot of research on this topic and have found many things that I did not know. At first, when I read the two articles, honestly, I was more grossed out than anything. I did not really care; I just thought how weird it was going to be to try to write a paper on this topic. The main thing that ran through my mind was, “Why do people even care, men get circumcised every day.” However, after doing research and learning more, I decided it was so much more than that. Marrilee H. Salmon, a professor of science, states in her article how unmoral and degrading the process of female circumcision is. I strongly agree with her opinion and the opinion of many other feminist anthropologists, who are desperately trying to help eliminate this procedure. Salmon also goes on to tell how female circumcision is an act of power more than anything, giving men power and/or authority over women. And it truly is, I mean how is this beneficial to women at all? Every one is entitled to their own opinion and mine is expressed exactly in Marrilee’s article when she says, “it’s also called genital mutilation!” That is exactly what this is, “MUTILATION,” and I definitely agree with putting a stop to it. I also feel...
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...CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Female circumcision is a traditional practice performed on girl children as part of initiation rituals into adulthood. This inquiry seeks to demystify the secretiveness surrounding this practice, seeking to establish the reasons why female circumcision remains a taboo subject. In doing so, the researcher will attempt to establish the local community’s perception of female circumcision and elucidate some of the reasons practitioners cite as benefits of female circumcision. The research focuses on Mabvuku and Tafara suburbs because there are people of different ethnic groups with varying customs and values that shape their behaviour and way of life. Mabvuku and Tafara have an unusually high concentration of people of Malawian, Mozambican and Zambian origin who migrated to seek work mostly before the Zimbabwean independence. Due to this diversity, women and girls who have undergone female circumcision were interviewed. Mabvuku is a high-density suburb some seventeen kilometres east of Harare. It is classified as a suburb or township of Harare, with the Harare City Council constituting local government. This inquiry is exploratory, descriptive and qualitative in nature, based on interviews with women who had undergone the practice in Mabvuku-Tafara. The inquiry can be termed therefore, a qualitative research done through a case study design. This research method is preferred because the researcher is exploring a subjective understanding of social reality...
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...widespread and devastating epidemics we are currently dealing with. Many factors about this virus contribute to making it spread faster, become deadlier, and leaves no one unaffected. HIV/AIDS reaches the young and the old, the rich and the poor, and those in developed and undeveloped countries. Education about the virus and how it is approached to different people also affects how it is spread, several cultural factors come into play as to how effective it is in preventing future contraction of the virus. The cultural perceptions of the virus also affect how the virus is researched and how medicines are developed for it. Religion also plays a role in how the virus is spread and can have an impact on how those who are researching the disease research it. The spread of HIV/AIDS is affected by several factors the main ones being the approach of education taken, cultural perceptions of the disease, and religion. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) was first recognized as a disease in 1981 (Kshatriya, 2005, pg. 69). Before 1981 it was found in the Caribbean and in African countries but it wasn’t until those first cases in the United States were diagnosed that the disease was officially recognized. HIV/AIDS exploded in America in the early 80’s, and initially they thought that AIDS was a “gay disease” and called it GRID standing for “gay related immune disease” (Lovell, 2011, pg. 111). This caused an initial stigmatization of the disease due to the association with homosexuality...
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...Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology Vol. 4(5), pp. 117-122, May 2012 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JPHE DOI: 10.5897/JPHE11.194 ISSN 2141-2316 ©2012 Academic Journals Full Length Research Paper Female genital mutilation in Southeast Nigeria: A survey on the current knowledge and practice Ibekwe Perpetus C.*, Onoh Robinson C, Onyebuchi Azubike K., Ezeonu Paul O. and Ibekwe Rosemary O. Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Federal Medical Centre, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State. Accepted 9 April, 2012 Female genital mutilation (FGM) has been recognised as a major reproductive health problem and a dehumanising practice that has resisted change especially in developing countries. The study reviews the current knowledge and practice of FGM in Southeast Nigeria. This is a questionnaire based descriptive study involving women of reproductive age in Abakaliki, South east Nigeria. A semistructured questionnaire was distributed to 320 women by simple random sampling. Information sought included the socio-demographic characteristics, and personal information on FGM with regards to knowledge and practice. Two hundred and sixty (81.3%) were appropriate for analysis. The mean age of the respondents was 28.6 years ± 5.4 SD. Most had formal education, with tertiary education contributing 60.8%. A high percentage was aware of FGM, and the problem associated with it was 91 and 72%, respectively. Half of the respondents (49.6%) were genitally mutilated while almost the...
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...Rites of Passage Your Name ANT 101 Instructor's Name Date In times we see many different cultures that evolved around the earth and throughout time as well. This paper will examine Native Americans, Greek and the Japanese rites of passage. Ceremonies that mark important transitional periods in a person's life, such as birth, puberty, marriage, having children, and death. Rites of passage usually involve ritual activities and teachings designed to strip individuals of their original roles and prepare them for new roles. The traditional American wedding ceremony is such a rite of passage. In many so-called primitive societies, some of the most complex rites of passage occur at puberty, when boys and girls are initiated into the adult world. In some ceremonies, the initiates are removed from their village and may undergo physical mutilation before returning as adults (Rites of passage,(n.d.). Rites of Passage have been a path of life throughout time and space. Anthropologists have found many differences between cultures but also many similatries. Rites of passage from boy to man or girl to woman are different in some and strange in others. The Native Americans and the Greeks were not the same as the Japanese, but yet believed in some of the same old blood ways. Rites are not taught but learned throughout one’s lifetime. Native Americans had a volatile version of passage. In the earlier years, the Native American boys would play as boys. They would follow fathers and...
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...Female Genital Mutilation (also incorrectly known as “female circumcision”) is an extreme cultural practice prevalent in much of North and West Africa as well as in parts of the Middle East and Asia, in which young women and girls are forced to undergo a procedure that alters or rather, mutilates their reproductive organs. Although Female Genital Mutilation, or FGM, is seen in many cultures as a way to promote purity and chastity, this paper will argue that it is in fact a reflection of the “deep-rooted inequality between sexes, and constitutes an extreme form of discrimination against women.” (WHO, 2014) Female Genital Mutilation is defined by any procedure that alters the exterior parts of a female’s reproductive organ. The literature describes four main types of FGM. The first type is called clitoridectomy. In this process surgery involves the full or partial removal of the clitoris. A second type is called excision and this occurs when the clitoris is also fully or partially removed. In addition, the labia minora is removed leaving just the labia majora intact. Infibulation is the most severe form of FGM and occurs when a seal is formed over the opening of the vagina by removing the inner or outer labia. A small hole is left for the passage of menstrual fluid and urine. The hole is...
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...Nature vs. Nurture On the great debate of Nature vs. Nurture I was once the firm believer that one’s identity was shaped through social variables (nurture). Upon further research on the topic my opinion has changed and I believe that biological and social variables both help to shape ones identity and personality. When we are born we all have male or female predispositions. Hormones are released which in turn increase those male or female behaviors (Nature) shaping our gender identity. There was study on a boy Bruce Reimer who had suffered genital mutilation while undergoing a circumcision procedure at 6 months of age. His parents then decided for Bruce to undergo “gender-reassignment” as they were told that gender was determined by environmental variables. Bruce now became Brenda and was raised as a female. While growing Brenda still exhibited male qualities, dismissing “female” toys, trying to use male restrooms, attempt to urinate standing up (despite the fact that Brenda did not have male anatomy). Her brother had even suggested the only difference between them was that Brenda had long hair, and he had short. Although Brenda’s parents had done everything to shape Brenda’s gender identity into female, Brenda still rejected the feminine identity. Brenda’s parents informed her of the gender- reassignment surgery, and at 14 years of age Brenda cut off all of her hair and started living life as “David”. David was able to restore his male identity and live his life out until he...
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...Liberty University “Infant Baptism” A research paper submitted to Professor Seth Johnson In Partial Fulfillment of the requirements For THEO 350-D07 Liberty University Online By Jeffrey Robinson L21932989 Lynchburg, Virginia April 24, 2012 I did not come to the saving knowledge of the Lord until I was twenty-four years old. By this time I had two small children that were four years old and two months old. My wife was born and raised in the church. She wanted to get the children baptized. I did not know what that meant. So being the inquisitive new covert that I was, I went to the pastor and asked what the meaning of the infant baptism was. He explained that it was just an outward sign that I was going to raise my children in the church and the ways of Christ. I thought that was a great idea. Until this class, I did not know that there was any other reason than the one explained to me by my pastor nineteen years ago. The topic just never came up. Since I believe that this is the true reason I had my children baptized, this paper will try to argue that infant baptism is not for salvation purposes. I believe in true faith. I also believe that baptism can be an empty ritual. Through research and prayer, God has been teaching me about the church and the communal nature of faith. I have learned that a person’s view of the meaning of the sacraments, the Church, covenant theology, individualism, and God’s grace have a great deal to do with...
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...Cultural Relativism and Problems Associated with This Approach Cultural anthropology is the study of cultural variation among people. An essential concept that professional anthropologists apply in their fieldworks is - cultural relativism - an approach to study of the nature and role of values in a culture without judgment and comparison to their own. According to the Study Guide, Smillie and Kenny state that major contribution to the study of the concept of cultural relativism can be attributed to Boas and his students, who challenged a wide-spread idea that societies are staged along a line from the most undeveloped to most “civilized.” Rather, they suggested that each individual culture should be understood in terms of its unique beliefs and ideals. That is, in order to observe and understand how people live and operate in a particular culture, it is important to consider the way other view the world within the framework of their culture. A great example of this idea is depicted by Laura Bohannan in her work “Shakespeare in the bush.” With an argument in mind, that human nature is more or less universal, she travels to Africa and discusses a famous Shakespeare’s tragic play with native people of a tribe Tiv, expecting only slight variations in its interpretation accounted for discrepancies in culture. To her surprise, Bohannan finds out that customs, beliefs, translations and culture have an enormous role in the perception and interpretation of Shakespeare’s play and that...
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...Introduction The concept of gender has become a debatable issue in the contemporary society and an important dimension in the design and analysis of social and economic development policies. These development concerns have brought about gender issues at the forefront of national and international agenda. During the 1990's, the gender issue continued to follow the historical trend by being one of the most popular themes of debates. The Human Development Report, (1995) posits that the number of women is greater than or equal to that of men, in today's society, yet females are still considered as a minority segment of the population. As a measure to redress gender inequalities, approaches by feminist movements, such as Women in Development (WID), were crafted but not much was achieved. Later, it was Women and Development (WAD) and lastly Gender and Development (GAD). It seems deep-rooted gender inequality still exists globally, despite substantial national and international measures that have been taken towards gender equality. This essay deliberates on the assertion that, “Gender equality is debatable: what is undebatable is the attempt to make it universally applicable.” The writer agrees to a greater extent that gender equality is a controversial issue basing on the multiplicity of societies that it is applied to. The fact that there is no universal culture, universal religion or universal ideology makes the whole issue arguable, ence, the need to degenderise gender...
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...INTRODUCTION The following paper will serve the purpose of analysing the policy response to HIV and AIDS in Kenya as a case study in East Africa. Kenya has the main organisation which facilitates and controls various HIV and aids policy strategic response which is the national aids control council (NACC). It is the mandate of the Kenya Ministry of Health (MoH) to deliver quality, affordable health care to all citizens of Kenya. Various strategic documents have outlined plans towards achieving this goal, including the Second National Health Sector Strategic Plan (NHSSP II, 2005-2010) and the Kenya National AIDS Strategic Plan (KNASP, 2005-2010).They are various other documents which include the HIV and AIDS Prevention and Control Act, 2006 Sexual Offences Act, 2006 Children’s Act, 2001 Medical Laboratory Act, 1999 Science and Technology Act, 1980 Public Health Act (Cap 242) HIV prevalence in Kenya is estimated based on the Demographic and Health Survey (2003 and 2008/9), AIDS Indicator Surveys (KAIS 2007 and 2012) and Antenatal Clinic (ANC) sentinel surveillance. A trend analysis starting from 1990 shows that prevalence in the general population reached a peak of 10.5% in 1995‐96, after which it declined by about 40% to reach approximately 6.7% in 2003. Since then, the prevalence has remained relatively stable. The decline of the prevalence from 1995 to 2003 is partly attributed to high AIDS related mortality while the stabilisation of the epidemic in the last 10 years is...
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...Running head: Human Relations and Dignity According to the Code Human Relations and Dignity According to the Code Candi Butler PS502: Ethics and Standards of Professional Psychology Kaplan University Introduction Turiel's research program is often viewed as an attempt to shrink the ethical domain to its proper dimensions. That is, the ethical domain should not include matters of social convention or matters of personal prerogatives, since these are conceptually distinct domains, and even young children know it. Furthermore, ethical and conventional judgments follow independent lines of development, since they are constructed from qualitatively different kinds of social interactions and social experiences. If different domains of social knowledge are constructed from different kinds of social experiences and therefore follow independent lines of development, one would not expect to find interdependencies among these domains (Turiel, 2005). There would be no theoretical reason, for example, to expect one domain of reasoning to be necessary but not sufficient for reasoning in another domain. Turiel's work is viewed as a strong challenge to Kohlberg's theory. Kohlberg's theory describes, for example, a conventional level of ethical development, implying that ethicality and social conventions are not clearly distinguishable, at least not until one reaches the principled level...
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