...The Rh factor (ie, Rhesus factor) is a red blood cell surface antigen that was named after the monkeys in which it was first discovered. Rh incompatibility, also known as Rh disease, is a condition that occurs when a woman with Rh-negative blood type is exposed to Rh-positive blood cells, leading to the development of Rh antibodies. Rh incompatibility can occur by 2 main mechanisms. The most common type occurs when an Rh-negative pregnant mother is exposed to Rh-positive fetal red blood cells secondary to fetomaternal hemorrhage during the course of pregnancy from spontaneous or induced abortion, trauma,[1] invasive obstetric procedures, or normal delivery. Rh incompatibility can also occur when an Rh-negative female receives an Rh-positive blood transfusion. In part, this is the reason that blood banks prefer using blood type "O negative" or "type O, Rh negative," as the universal donor type in emergency situations when there is no time to type and crossmatch blood. The most common cause of Rh incompatibility is exposure from an Rh-negative mother by Rh-positive fetal blood during pregnancy or delivery. As a consequence, blood from the fetal circulation may leak into the maternal circulation, and, after a significant exposure, sensitization occurs leading to maternal antibody production against the foreign Rh antigen. Once produced, maternal Rh immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies may cross freely from the placenta to the fetal circulation, where they form antigen-antibody complexes...
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...a fatal hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) caused by incompatibilities in the blood groups between the mother and her unborn child during pregnancy. Because of the incompatibility, the mother's immune system may launch an immune response against the red blood cells of the fetus through the placenta, resulting in the destruction of the red blood cells (hemolysis). In the destruction of the red blood cells, the fetus can develop anemia. The red blood cell destruction ranges from mild to very severe, and fetal death from heart failure can occur, as well as life-threatening problems for future pregnancies. The Rhesus system (Rh) blood group antigen is responsible for most of the fatal cases of erythroblastosis fetalis, hence, the term Rh incompatibility disease. However, other alloimmune antigens belonging to the Kell (K and k), Duffy (Fya), Kidd (Jka and Jkb), MNSs (M, N, S, and s), Diego, Xg, P, Ee, Cc antigen systems, as well as other antigens may also produce the disease. Incompatibilities of Landsteiner (A, B and O) blood group systems do not cause erythroblastosis fetalis. A French midwife reported the first case of HDN in a set of twins, in 1609. In 1932, Diamond and colleagues described the relationship of fetal hydrops, jaundice, anemia, and erythroblasts (immature red blood cells) in the blood circulation, a condition later called erythroblastosis fetalis. Levine later determined the cause after Landsteiner and Weiner discovered the Rh blood group system...
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...Rh incompatibility is only with Rh negative moms. Its where the mom’s blood and baby’s blood comes into contact. Complications happen when the mom’s blood is Rh negative and the baby’s blood is Rh positive. To help prevent this from happening moms who are Rh negative have the option of getting Rhogam, I say option because Rhogam is a blood product and some people disagree with the use of blood products. But Rhogam is the only way to help prevent the mom’s body from making antibodies against Rh positive. Rh negative moms receive Rhogam at 28 weeks or before if there was some sort of trauma or abortion. Then once they deliver the baby, the baby’s blood is then tested to see if they are Rh positive. If the baby is Rh positive, then the mom must receive another dose of Rhogam within 72hours of delivery. This again is to help prevent the body from forming...
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...CV+ Blood What happens in MI- A heart attack (myocardial infarction) is usually caused by a blood clot, which stops the blood flowing to a part of your heart muscle. You should call for an ambulance immediately if you develop severe chest pain. Treatment with a clot-busting medicine or an emergency procedure to restore the blood flow through the blocked blood vessel are usually done as soon as possible. This is to prevent or minimise any damage to your heart muscle. Other treatments help to ease the pain and to prevent complications. Reducing various risk factors can help to prevent a myocardial infarction. If you have a myocardial infarction (heart attack), a coronary artery or one of its smaller branches is suddenly blocked. The part of the heart muscle supplied by this artery loses its blood (and oxygen) supply if the vessel is blocked. This part of the heart muscle is at risk of dying unless the blockage is quickly removed. When a part of the heart muscle is damaged it is said to be infarcted. The term myocardial infarction (MI) means damaged heart muscle. If a main coronary arteries is blocked, a large part of the heart muscle is affected. If a smaller branch artery is blocked, a smaller amount of heart muscle is affected. After an MI, if part of the heart muscle has died, it is replaced by scar tissue over the next few weeks. What happens in dysrhythmias- A cardiac dysrhythmia is an abnormal heart beat: the rhythm may be irregular in its pacing or the heart rate may...
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...THE NEWBORN WITH SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS A preterm infant is usually defined as a live-born infant born before the end of week 37 of gestation; another criterion is a weight of less than 2,500 grams (5lb 8oz) at birth I. INCIDENCE Occurs approximately 7% of live births of white infants, in Afro-American infants the rate is doubled 14% (Thilo & Rosenberg, 2003) CAUSES/FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH PRETERM BIRTHS 1. Low socio-economic status 2. Poor nutritional status 3. Lack of prenatal care 4. Multiple pregnancy 5. Previous early birth 6. Race (non-whites have higher incidence than whites) 7. Cigarette smoking 8. Age of the mother (highest incidence is in mothers younger than age 20) 9. Order of birth (early termination is highest in first pregnancies and in those beyond 4th pregnancies) 10. Closed spaced pregnancies 11. Abnormalities of mother’s reproductive system, such as intrauterine septum 12. Infections (especially UTI) 13. Obstetric complications (PROM, premature separation of placenta 14. Early induction of labor 15. Elective cesarean birth ASSESSMENT A. History – detailed pregnancy history will reveal reason for the preterm birth; be careful not to convey disapproval of reported pregnancy behaviors such as smoking, etc. Being overburdened with guilt may be detrimental to her attempts to bond with her infant B. Appearance Criteria Posture Premature infant Resting posture – characterized by very little, if any, flexion in upper extremities and only partial flexion of...
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...40 weeks. 4. Explain Nagele’s rule for calculating the due date. Nagele’s rule: First day of LMP-3 months+7days 5. Describe antepartum uterine and fetal assessments: McDonald’s method-Measuring the distance in cm from the symphysis pubis to the top of the uterine fundus. Should correlate with the weeks gestation. Usually cm is less the last few weeks of pregnancy related to the baby dropping. Quickening-Fetal movement felt by mother about 20 weeks. Fetal Heartbeat-Doppler at about 10 weeks. Ultrasound-Transvaginal and Abdominal 6. What are some contributing factors to a high-risk pregnancy? Maternal age <16 or >35yrs, Maternal medical problems chronic HTN, preeclampsia, diabetes mellitus or heart disease, Rh incompatibility Rh – mother Rh + fetus, Unexplained stillbirth,...
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...Cerebral Palsy. My mother has lived with a mild case of this disease since birth. Cerebral Palsy is a broad term used to describe a group of chronic “palsies – disorders that impair control of movement -- due to damage to the developing brain. CP usually develops by age 2 or 3 and is a no progressive brain disorder, meaning it does not continue to worsen throughout life. However, the symptoms due to the brain damage often do change over time; sometimes getting better and sometimes getting worse. CP is one of the most common causes of chronic childhood disability. (www.webmd.com). Between 35 and 50 percent of all children with CP will have a seizure disorder and some level of mental retardation. They may also have learning disabilities and vision, speech, hearing, or language problems. (www.webmd.com). There are three types of CP: Spastic CP, the most common, is a disorder in which certain muscles are stiff and weak. Dyskinetic, or athetotic, CP generally involves impairment of voluntary muscle control. Mixed CP is a combination of the two previous classifications. (www.webmd.com). Much remains unknown about the disorder’s causes, but evidence supports theories that infections, during pregnancy may damage a fetus’ developing nervous system. These include rubella (German measles), (a herpes – type virus), (an infection caused by a parasite that can be carried in cat feces or inadequately cooked meat). ...
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...use is the administration of erythropoietin (EPO). Why would they use this as a medication? Red blood cells are the essential carrier of oxygen in the blood stream. When there is an abundance of red blood cells in the body, there is an increase in the supply of oxygen that can be delivered to muscle cells and tissues. When this occurs, the muscles can perform at a higher rate of efficiency and deliver power and strength. Because blood can come from the athlete themselves or from another person, there is a risk factor. If an athlete uses his or her own blood, they must undergo a blood withdraw, resulting in a potential shortage of blood, thus causing anemia. In the event that the blood comes from a third-party, communicable diseases and incompatibility can occur. Erythropoietin (EPO) is used by athletes to increase red blood cell counts as well. Erythropoietin is a type of protein that stimulates the production of red blood cells. EPO is a protein hormone produced by the kidneys. After being released into the bloodstream it binds with receptors in the bone marrow, where it stimulates the production of red blood cells (erythrocytes). Using erythropoietin removes the health concerns that may come along with transfusing one’s own blood or another person’s blood. As with blood doping, adding EPO to the circulatory system can be dangerous. With blood doping, adding more red blood cells than the body needs can increase the viscosity of the blood. The most common risk is a blood...
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...the unconjugated bilirubin must be transported to the liver where it undergoes several processes to ultimately be converted into a water soluble substance. This form of bilirubin can now be excreted into the bile, followed by the intestines, kidneys, and later through waste. Most cases of jaundice are seen in the infant between the second and fourth days prior to birth. It also usually disappears between day seven to ten. Jaundice present in the first twenty four hours of life and surpassing fourteen days may indicate more severe problems within an infant. Newborn hemolytic disease is one factor that can also cause jaundice. If an Rh negative mother is carrying an Rh positive fetus, the fetal blood can enter the maternal bloodstream as a result of the placenta. As a result, the woman’s body begins to produce anti-Rh antibodies which could then attack the infant’s red blood cells. ABO incompatibility is another factor that can result in jaundice. This can occur with a mother who has blood type O carrying a blood type A or B infant. If the fetal and maternal blood mix, the anti A and B antibodies produced by the mother’s body will attack the infants erythrocytes. This would result in increased red blood cell destruction within the newborn resulting in jaundice. Treatment- Phototherapy History In the 1950’s, a nurse in charge of the Premature Unit at Rochford General Hospital in England, Sister Ward, had a strong belief in the power of sunshine and fresh air in restoring...
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...BLOOD FUNCTIONS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The term cardiovascular1 system refers only to the heart and vessels, which are the subject of chapters 19 and 20. The study of blood, specifically, is called hematology.2 The fundamental purpose of the circulatory system is to transport substances from place to place in the body. Blood is the liquid medium in which these materials travel, blood vessels ensure the proper routing of blood to its destinations, and the heart is the pump that keeps the blood flowing. More specifically, the functions of the circulatory system are as follows: Transport * The blood carries oxygen from the lungs to all of the body's tissues, while it picks up carbon dioxide from those tissues and carries it to the lungs to be removed from the body. * It picks up nutrients from the digestive tract and delivers them to all of the body's tissues. * It carries metabolic wastes to the kidneys for removal. * It carries hormones from endocrine cells to their target organs. * It transports a variety of stem cells from the bone marrow and other origins to the tissues where they lodge and mature. Protection * The blood plays several roles in inflammation, a mechanism for limiting the spread of infection. * White blood cells destroy microorganisms and cancer cells. * Antibodies and other blood proteins neutralize toxins and help to destroy pathogens. * Platelets...
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...This is intended as a guide and not all inclusive. The material for OB Exam 1 will be over Chapters 9,10, 11, 12, 19, 20 in your textbook. Chapter 9 1. Intimate Partner Violence- the actual or threatened physical or sexual violence or psychological/emotional abuse. It includes threats of physical or sexual violence when the threat is used to CONTROL a person’s actions a. Incidence pg. 215 b. Definitions c. Characteristics pg. 216 d. Types of Abuse/Violence pg. 217- emotional, physical, financial and sexual e. The Cycle of Violence- box 9.1 pg. 217; pg. 216-217 paragraph i. Phase 1- Tension building ii. Phase 2- Acute battering iii. Phase 3- Honeymoon f. Myths and Facts About Intimate Partner Violence- pg. 217-218; Table 9.1 pg. 218 g. Victims/Abuser Profiles pg. 217-218 h. How Intimate Partner Violence affects Pregnant Women pg.218-219 i. Nursing Care and Management (p. 220-225) j. Sexual Violence and Abuse pg. 225 iv. Terms- pt. 225 - sexual abuse, incest, rape, female genital mutilation, human trafficking v. Myths and Facts about Rape Table- ph. 227 Table 9.2 vi. Nursing Management and Teaching needed Chapter 10 2. Fetal Development k. Stages-pg. 238- preembryonic (fertilization through the second week) , embryonic (end of the second week through the eighth week), and fetal (end of eighth week until birth) l. Vocabulary ...
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...UNDERSTANDING THE HUMAN BODY NOTES Anatomical Position - Posterior = Back Anterior = Front Dorsal = Back Ventral = Front Medial = Middle Lateral = Side Superior = Above Inferior = Below Proximal = Near point of attachment / Beginning Distal = Away from point of attachment / end Cephalic = Head Caudal = Tail Anatomical Guides – Using a known anatomical structure or region identifying an underlying or adjacent structure. Linear Guide – Drawing a real or imaginary line to locate an anatomical structure. Anatomical Limits – Proximal and distal aspects of an Anatomical structure. Planes - imaginary divisions of the human body. Sagittal – Cut the body in half from Left Right Midsagittal – Equal part left right Parasagittal – Non-equal left right parts. Coronal – Dividing body from front back Transverse – Divides the body into superior and inferior Body Cavities - The human body consists of the following body cavities: Dorsal body cavity Cranial cavity- enclosed by the Skull and contains the brain, eyes, and ears. Spinal canal - enclosed by the spine and contains the spinal cord. Ventral body cavity Thoracic cavity enclosed by the ribcage and contains the lungs and heart. Abdominopelvic cavity Abdominal cavity, enclosed by the ribcage and pelvis and contains the Kidneys, ureters, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas Pelvic cavity, enclosed by the pelvis and contains bladder, anus and reproductive system. Pelvic...
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...Darren & Jenny’s Nursing Study Guide Darren & Jenny Nursing Study Guide Nursing Formulas and Conversions Drugs and Dosage Formulas and Conversions Volume 60 minims = 1 dram = 5cc = 1tsp 4 drams = 0.5 ounces = 1tbsp 8 drams = 1 ounce 16 ounces = 1pt. 32 ounces = 1qt. Weight 60 grains = 1dram 8 drams = 1 ounce 12 ounces = 1 lb. (apothecaries') Household 1tsp = 1tsp = 3tsp = 1tbsp = Household 1tsp=5cc 3tsp=1tbsp 1tbsp=0.5oz or 15cc 2tbsp=1oz or 30cc 1pt.=16oz or 480cc 1qt=32oz or 960cc 1/60 grain=1mg 15 grains=1g 2.2 lbs.=1kg Apothecary 1 dram 60 gtts (drops) 0.5 ounce 0.5 ounce Metric 5cc=1tsp 15cc=1tbsp 30cc=2tbsp(1oz) 1cc=16minims Apothecary 1fl.dram=4cc 4drams=0.5oz 8drams=2tbsp(1oz) 16minims=1cc 500cc=0.5L or 1pt. 1000cc=1L or 1qt. Temp. Conversion C= F-32/1.8 F= 1.8*C-32 2 Darren & Jenny Nursing Study Guide NOTES CARDIOVASCULAR Arterial Ulcer – Pale, deep base, surrounded by tissue that is cool with trophic changes such as dry, soluble skin and loss of hair. Cause by ischemia from inadequate arterial blood supply of oxygen and nutrients . Venous stasis Ulcer – Dark, red base, surrounded by skin that is brown in color with edema. Caused by the accumulation of waste products of metabolism that are not cleared due to venous congestion. Stage I Ulcer – Reddened area with intact skin surface. Management of DVT – Bed rest, limb elevation , relief of discomfort with warm, moist, heat and analgesics (Tylenol, not narcotics) prn. Ambulation is contraindicated...
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...Darren & Jenny’s Nursing Study Guide Darren & Jenny Nursing Study Guide Nursing Formulas and Conversions Drugs and Dosage Formulas and Conversions Volume 60 minims = 1 dram = 5cc = 1tsp 4 drams = 0.5 ounces = 1tbsp 8 drams = 1 ounce 16 ounces = 1pt. 32 ounces = 1qt. Weight 60 grains = 1dram 8 drams = 1 ounce 12 ounces = 1 lb. (apothecaries') Household 1tsp = 1tsp = 3tsp = 1tbsp = Household 1tsp=5cc 3tsp=1tbsp 1tbsp=0.5oz or 15cc 2tbsp=1oz or 30cc 1pt.=16oz or 480cc 1qt=32oz or 960cc 1/60 grain=1mg 15 grains=1g 2.2 lbs.=1kg Apothecary 1 dram 60 gtts (drops) 0.5 ounce 0.5 ounce Metric 5cc=1tsp 15cc=1tbsp 30cc=2tbsp(1oz) 1cc=16minims Apothecary 1fl.dram=4cc 4drams=0.5oz 8drams=2tbsp(1oz) 16minims=1cc 500cc=0.5L or 1pt. 1000cc=1L or 1qt. Temp. Conversion C= F-32/1.8 F= 1.8*C-32 2 Darren & Jenny Nursing Study Guide NOTES CARDIOVASCULAR Arterial Ulcer – Pale, deep base, surrounded by tissue that is cool with trophic changes such as dry, soluble skin and loss of hair. Cause by ischemia from inadequate arterial blood supply of oxygen and nutrients . Venous stasis Ulcer – Dark, red base, surrounded by skin that is brown in color with edema. Caused by the accumulation of waste products of metabolism that are not cleared due to venous congestion. Stage I Ulcer – Reddened area with intact skin surface. Management of DVT – Bed rest, limb elevation , relief of discomfort with warm, moist, heat and analgesics (Tylenol, not narcotics) prn. Ambulation is contraindicated...
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...Distorted Reality: A Research on Schizophrenia Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is widely considered one of the more destructive illnesses known to man. Contrary to popular belief, schizophrenia isn't a split personality or multiple personality disorder. The word "schizophrenia" does mean, "split mind," but it refers to a disruption of the usual balance of emotions and thinking. Schizophrenia is a severe class of brain disorders in which the sufferer has a vastly distorted perception of reality. Although it affects approximately one percent of America’s population (“Schizophrenia,” n.d), not much is known about it outside of recent progressive research. There are drugs and different therapies available to treat the symptoms of this complex disorder but in most of the cases, the patients will continue to experience schizophrenic symptoms for the rest of their lives. In my research, I was able to determine what schizophrenia is, its symptoms, believed causes, and finally, available treatments. Schizophrenia, as stated before, is a brain disorder that makes it difficult to tell the difference between real and unreal experiences, to think logically, to have normal emotional responses, and to behave normally in social situations. Schizophrenia appears to occur equally among men and women, usually developing between the ages of 15 and 20. In women, however, it tends to start showing symptoms later, around the ages of 20 - 30. Additionally, schizophrenia has shown to have...
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