... Social cognition assumes important roles such as decision making and perception of information in everyday life and therefore comprises of cognitive structures that influence and are influenced by the happenings in the social world. From this individual beings form shortcuts to ease the processing of information this is termed as being social misers towards a cognitive economy. This is due to a limitation in cognitive capacity and the existence of mental structural guides of cognition Examples of this shortcut is schemas. These categories simplify concepts. categorisation is done by grouping similar traits together that forms cognitive economy(Bruner et al.,1956) however it is not always that a common factor exist in a category this is known as the prototypical approach(Barsalou, 1991). Schemas and heuristics shape the categorisation process. This essay will look at schema and heuristics and examples of the same giving examples and evaluation for each. First this essay will look at schemas A schema can be defined as a packet of information containing fixed values and alternative values to represent the knowledge and experiences embodied, that an individual experiences in the world. (Gross 2010). Schemas enable encoding of large information in a short period of time. There are four types of schemas. Person schemas that comprise of attributes and skills that often take form of what is attributed to an individual. Another is event schemas that are also called cognitive scripts...
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...SCHEMATA A schema (pl. schemata or schemas), is a mental structure that represents some aspect of the world. People use schemata to organize current knowledge and provide a framework for future understanding. Schemata influence our attention, as we are more likely to notice things that fit into our schema. If something contradicts our schema, it may be encoded or interpreted as an exception or as unique. Thus, schemata are prone to distortion. They influence what we look for in a situation. They have a tendency to remain unchanged, even in the face of contradictory information. We are inclined to place people who do not fit our schema in a "special" or "different" category, rather than to consider the possibility that our schema may be faulty. As a result of schemata, we might act in such a way that actually causes our expectations to come true. Schemata can influence and hamper the uptake of new information (proactive interference), such as when existing stereotypes, giving rise to limited or biased discourses and expectations (prejudices), may lead an individual to "see" or "remember" something that has not happened because it is more believable in terms of his/her schema. For example, if a well-dressed businessman draws a knife on a vagrant, the schemata of onlookers may (and often do) lead them to "remember" the vagrant pulling the knife. Such distortion of memory has been demonstrated. A schema for oneself is called a "self schema". Schemata for other people are called...
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...clarity about who they are and what their role is in life” This suggest that identity development plays a critical role in the individual’s psychological well-being. Thus the necessity of understanding your sense of identity is self-evident. In summary, in this assignment, I’m going to discuss the importance of identity, and the relation between the identity and role of a person portray and enact. To begin with, identity plays an important role in our daily life, and the Identity I’m talking about here is not just a set of computerised data that distinguish me from you and you from me; Identity is a complex term, which links self attitudes, or identities, to the role relationships and role-related behaviour of individuals. Identity theorists argue that the self consists of a collection of identities, each of which is based on occupying a particular role (Stryker, 1968; Stryker & Burke, 2000). Identities can be defined as one's answers to the question 'Who am I?" (Stryker & Serpe, 1982). Many of the "answers" (e.g., "I am a student") are linked to the roles we occupy, so they are often referred to as "role identities" or simply, "identities." For example, familial identities might include those of married couple or parent and occupational identities might include those of accountant or salesperson. In turn, these role identities are said to influence behavior in that each role has a set of associated meanings and expectations for the self (Burke & Reitzes, 1981)...
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...efinition Gender typing projects societies' expectations regarding people's behavior based upon their biological sex.[2] [edit]Acquisition Gender typing is most typical during the formative years of developing one's identity. Through social learning theory children learn gender roles and behaviors, and begin to gender type. Through such reinforcing statements as "Big boys don't cry" or "You're such a good girl, being such a good mommy to your toys," children realize what is typical of the male and female gender and gender type other traits and behaviors as they try and discover whether they belong in 'girl world' or 'boy world.' Gender typing begins as early as age 2 or 3, as children are just beginning to distinguish between male and female voices, and develop a sense of language. Children at ages 2–4 are gender typing by the clothes they see other children wear, hairstyles and what toys are okay for boys to play with and what toys girls play with. By age 5, a child now has the ability to gender type by observing behavior, traits and tools used by men and women. A child may associate a man with the words aggressive, brave, autocrat, dominant and independent, a woman with the words emotional, sentimental, fragile, dependent and submissive.[3] In many languages, words are masculine or feminine ("la primavera" or "el invierno"), everything in the child's world takes on a female or male presence and is gender typed.[4] The Cognitive development theory is also important in...
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...begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities through social interactions. * Retinal Disparity Definition: the way that your left eye and your right eye view slightly different images. What it is: makes depth perception possible by blending the two images into one. * Monocular Depth Cues What it is: seeing with one eye at a time, field of view increases * Schema Accommodation What is a schema? – A frame work that helps us organize and understand ideas and concepts. Schema accommodation: the modification of the framework, which helps to interpret new information. (Allowing you to create new schemas) * Schema Assimilation: Adding information to an existing schema Applied: A child knows that a dog has for legs, ears, and a tail. The child assimilates to the schema when the child learns dogs are also fuzzy, lick, and bark. * Gender Roles Definition: A set of expectations on how men and women should behave * Gender Schemas Definition: A set of gender-related expectations that influence behavior. * Pre-conventional morality First stage of Kohlbergs Stages of moral development The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished they must have done wrong. Conventional morality Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by...
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...anatomy of a human chromosomes are what make up a humans gender role. The sexual chromosomes determine the difference, for example, XX chromosomes make up a female, while XY chromosomes make a male. The X chromosome is the more dominate chromosome and has the ability to develop either sexual genitals. It has been discovered that hormones are responsible for a human’s biological development, and after they are born should be exposed to hormones. The Y chromosome directs the glands to release male sex hormones, and while pregnant it is important to take hormones, because it will take care of the nervous system. It takes many years to understand who we are, or even sometimes people never really understand themselves, but what we do know, is that you are not born knowing who you are. There are many factors that come into play all while trying to understand yourself, such as your environment, religious views, parental guidance. While growing up children are first influenced by their parents, and then as they soon start school, they are often influenced by other children, and then eventually the media plays a big influence. A theory that plays a big role is Gender Schema Theory; Gender schema theory refers to the theory that children learn about what it means to be male and female from the culture in which they live. According to this theory, children adjust their behavior to fit in with the gender norms and expectations of their culture (Cherry,...
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...Gender Schema Theory Name Institution Professor Course Date Explanation This theory which was initially developed by Sandra Bem (1981) and later improved by Charles Halverson and Carol Martin in 1983. The theory stresses the fact that children adjusts to the gender norms and also the expectations which their culture demands. The position of a society pertaining male and female traits greatly influences their development. Gender schemas therefore influences the beliefs, attitudes and the behaviors of the children during their mind development (Liben & Signorella, 1993). Through this the children learn various character traits which are associated with their gender depending on whether one is male or female. This is backed by the fact that in traditional societal cultures, any child who always sees women taking the role of raising children may strongly belief that the role of women in a society is caring for the young ones unlike men who are seen as family “breadwinners”. It is from this situation that children in such environments form schemas which directly influence their views and thoughts about their surroundings. Gender schema helps to organize the experiences of a child and aids in articulating sense of the social information gotten. For example the children of between five and eight years of age may develop a schema with an information of the dressing style for girls and boys. It is from this point that a boy will deny wearing what he sees as girl’s clothing...
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...BASIC CONCEPTS from Sociology and Anthropology - Tools to think with. SOCIETY: humanly created organization or system of interrelationships that connects individuals in a common culture. All the products of human interaction, the experience of living with others around us. Humans create their interactions, and once created the products of those interactions have the ability or power to act back upon humans to determine or constrain action. Often, we experience society (humanly created organization) as something apart from the individuals and interactions that create it. PRODUCTS OF HUMAN INTERACTION - COMPONENTS OF SOCIETY CULTURE: sets of traditions, rules, symbols that shape and are enacted as feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of groups of people. Referring primarily to learned behavior as distinct from that which is given by nature, or biology, culture has been used to designate everything that is humanly produced (habits, beliefs, arts, and artifacts) and passed from one generation to another. In this formulation, culture is distinguished from nature, and distinguishes one society from another. LANGUAGE: a system of verbal symbols through which humans communicate ideas, feelings, experiences. Through language these can be accumulated and transmitted across generations. Language is not only a tool, or a means of expression, but it also structures and shapes our experiences of the world and what we see around us. VALUES: preferences - ideas people share about what is good...
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...Source misattribution errors 3) Retrieval: Information the person retrieves at a later time Best guesses in line-up identification Leading questions - Inaccurate eyewitness testimony can have very serious consequences leading to wrongful convictions. - Why eyewitness testimony may be unreliable? * The role of anxiety: Baddeley 1997 reported that 74% of suspects convicted in 300 cases where eyewitness identification was the only evidence against them. Anxiety may lead to unreliable remembering depends on number of factors. * Research on ‘weapon focus’ Loftus 1979: P were exposed to one of the 2 situations; 1- They overheard a low-key discussion about an equipment failure. A person then emerged holding a pen with grease on his hands. 2- They overheard a heated and hostile exchange between people in the lab. After the sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs, a man emerged from the lab holding a paper knife covered in blood. P were then given 50 photos to try and identify the person. Findings: 1- Accurately identified the person 49% of the time. 2- Successfully 33% of the time. Conclusion: Reported a lab experiment which demonstrated the powerful role that anxiety can play in undermining the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. * Research on witnessing real-life events Yuille and Cutshall 1986: they interviewed 13 witnesses to a real-life shooting involving the owner of the store and an armed thief....
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...constructed family devotion schema defines women as having to stay at home in order to care for children, husband, and household, and therefore women are discouraged by society to hold a job. In the piece “An Overview of Sex Inequality at Work,” Padavic and Reskin further explain that women who are in the job market are excluded from certain male dominated jobs and are often paid and promoted less than male coworkers. Padavic and Reskin’s piece as well as Blair-Loy’s agree that the inequalities found in the workplace, including limited prospects for promotion of women and sex differences in earnings, directly limit the social opportunities of women and keep them subordinate and dominated by men. The constructed roles that men and women are expected to play in our society also affect social institutions such as the home, where women are stereotypically expected to be caregivers, and men are expected to be the breadwinners. Women face a very unfair challenge when deciding what role to play in their adult lives. They also face unwelcome pressure by society to choose one of two schemas that are revealed in the piece by Blair-Loy. In her work, she defines a family devotion schema, and explains how it appoints women to designated roles in society. “The family devotion schema assigns primary responsibility for home and family to women…Homemaking is a calling. It demands and deserves single-minded focus and allegiance” (Blair-Loy 263). The work devotion schema, which regards dedication...
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...Stereotyping in Children Outline Delaying exposure to gender stereotyping in young children helps avoid disapproving gender views that limit children’s behavior and learning abilities, which plays a vital role in their social and cognitive development. I. Beliefs and Behaviors II. Influences a. Biological b. Environment 1. Family 2. Teachers 3. Peers III. Identity a. Emergence of gender identity IV. Gender Schema V. Conclusion After researching and learning about this topic, children who hold a flexible gender view of what boys and girls can do tend to see the world in a less gender biased fashion and increases their social and cognitive development, which helps prepare them for entering society. Gender Stereotyping in Children Parents play the role of nurturing their children and preparing them for society, and somewhere in between they unintentionally introduce their children to gender stereotyping (beliefs and behaviors acceptable for girls and boys). As children grow they start to learn gender typing on their own through biological and environmental influences. Then through observation children develop their own identity towards male or female, and they start to organize their experiences through gender schemas. This is how children interpret what’s happening in their world. Piaget’s cognitive development theory and Bandura’s social learning theory explain how children learn through modeling and actively constructing...
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...“Stresses the role of mental processes in understanding behaviour” “Study of how people acquire, store, and use information” “Science of information flow through people” The words ‘cognition’ and ‘cognitive’ refer to ideas, thoughts, knowledge and beliefs that people have. Cognitive processes are concerned with thinking, memory, understanding language, and perceiving and solving problems. Social cognition is about understanding what other people are thinking or feeling. Cognitive psychology is difficult to define – try answering the question ‘what is thought?’ Schemas Humans try to make sense of the world, try to understand it, so we can function in it. These are our schemas, and can often be inaccurate. Define schema on page 362: What could happen if you have an inaccurate schema about your body weight? About how much people like you? About how healthy smoking is? Task: You have arrived at a restaurant. List all the things you would expect to happen during your visit. This list is your schema about what to do at a restaurant. A set of rules. What did Bower (1979) find? When new situations arise we can employ our learned schemata to try to understand the situation. For example, the first time you visited a fast food restaurant you had to adapt your restaurant schema – no knives and forks etc. We change and develop our schema through two processes: Assimilation: Accommodation: Stereotyping Stereotypes are examples of the schema we form about...
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...Men play football. Women wear pretty dresses. Men are from Mars, while women are from Venus. From the time a baby is born, humans place certain gender expectations upon that baby. Handsome, strong boys wear the manly color of blue while dainty, pretty girls wear a soft pink. Most boys are given trucks and Legos to play with while girls are given Barbie dolls and an Easy Bake Oven. Clearly, our culture has certain assumptions in which it believes girls and boys are supposed to behave and conduct themselves. In a sense, society places expectations on girls’ and boys’ behaviors, but, when someone seems to overstep these masculine or feminine standards, he or she is labeled queer or even “gay.” Because our society places such strict boundaries...
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...Self-Schema: A self-schema is a belief or idea about oneself that leads to a bias that is self-perpetuating. It could consist of a particular role in society or a generalization based on social sterotypes. If a mother tells her daughter she looks like a tom boy, her daughter may react by choosing activities that she imagines a tom boy would do. Conversely, if the mother tells her she looks like a princess, her daughter might choose activities thought to be more feminine. The self-schema becomes self-perpetuating when the individual chooses activities based on expectations instead of desires. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ The term schematic describes having a particular schema for a particular dimension. For instance, a person in a rock band at night would have a "rocker" schema. However, during the day, if he works as a salesperson, he would have a "salesperson" schema during that period of time. Schemas vary according to cultural background and other environmental factors. Once people have developed a schema about themselves, there is a strong tendency for that schema to be maintained by a bias in what they attend to, in what they remember, and in what they are prepared to accept as true about themselves. In other words, the self-schema becomes self-perpetuating. The self-schema is then stored in long-term memory, and both facilitates and biases the processing of personally relevant information. The term aschematic means...
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...What Affects does our Schemas and Critical Thinking Play in our Roles as Leaders GM591: Leadership and Organizational Behavior Instructor: Oliver London, Ph. D. Gloria Wilson gloriahomes@yahoo.com * 816-560-5913 December 10, 2010 INTRODUCTION Let me set the stage of this fascinating topic that I have created for you to understand, “What affects does our Schemas and Critical Thinking play in our roles as Leaders?” You must understand my background to see why I could not separate the two – Schemas and Critical Thinking. I was brought up in a southern Baptist family on my mom and dad side of the family. Our religion was number one and everything else was based on your beliefs (schemas) surrounding this very devout religious family. As I got older, and attended the business college for two years, before moving on to the big university, the first class I had was…you guessed it, Critical Thinking. I know I was a born leader, no doubt about it. I loved making sure everyone was well cared for in the family, as a child and as adult. You put all these together and you have created a…I will let you read it in the conclusion. My schemas as a child led me to believe, and do certain things as a child, to the clothing I wore down to the shoes I wore. Let me broaden it up for you a tad bit in schemas in the business world of thinking. “Schemas are cognitive frame works that represent organized knowledge developed through experience about people, objects, or events...
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