Don't discard banana peels; they are valuable as plant fertilizer.
Bananas are packed with nutrients, and that includes their peels. Though you won't want to eat them yourself, your plants benefit from the nutrients as the peels decay. Plants need nutrients need to thrive. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are required in the highest amounts, and nutrients such as calcium, manganese, sodium and sulfur are necessary in lower amounts. While various levels of these nutrients occur naturally, some soils can use a boost. Adding banana peels around prized plants is a widespread gardening practice that can improve your soil.
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Potassium
Dried banana peels are 42 percent potassium, more than most other organic substances, such as manure at 0.5 percent, wood ash at 10 percent and cantaloupe rinds at 12 percent. Potassium promotes the movement of water and nutrients between cells. It also strengthens stems and protects plants from disease. Because the plant is healthier, it might flower more. After the plant blooms, potassium can improve the quality and size of any fruit or nuts.
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Phosphorus
Banana peels are 3.25 percent phosphorus, one of the other major nutrients that plants need to grow. Phosphorus helps rooting, improves winter hardiness and speeds up flowering and fruiting. Banana peels inserted in the soil near the roots are an effective way to get phosphorus to your plants, because the peels break down quickly in the soil. This immediacy is helpful, because phosphorus is not mobile in the soil.
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Additional Nutrients
Banana peels do not contain nitrogen, the primary nutrient necessary for foliage growth. The peels do, however, contain relatively high levels of some micronutrients. Calcium -- concentrated at 19.2 milligrams per gram in fresh peels -- improves the breakdown of organic materials in the soil; makes other nutrients in the soil, nitrogen in particular, more available to plants; and controls how nutrients and water move in and out of cells. Manganese, concentrated at 76.2 mg/g in banana peels, aids in photosynthesis and the formation of some enzymes and plant pigments. Sodium, concentrated at 24.3 mg/g, is involved in the movement of water and ions between cells. The peels also contain magnesium and sulfur, both important in the formation of chlorophyll.
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Fertilizing With Banana Peels
One of the benefits of fertilizing with banana peels is that they break down quickly -- either in the soil or in compost -- making those nutrients available to plants sooner than nutrients from other organic materials. When burying peels, bury them deep so they don't attract animals or insects as they would if left on or just under the surface. You can also chop peels and steep them in water for a week, strain the peels out, and pour the solution on the soil to get the benefit of the nutrients without attracting pests. Since banana peels are not a complete fertilizer, don't rely on the peels alone to feed your plants, especially if your plants are heavy nitrogen feeders. The peels are most effective when composted to blend with nitrogen-rich materials.
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Are Banana Peels Good for You?
Last Updated: Jan 28, 2015 | By Joe King, M.S. Banana peels contains nutrients that have many health benefits. Photo CreditJupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images
Banana peels were once just food waste, but banana peels may be more useful than previously thought. Banana peels contain essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other compounds that have a variety of benefits both when you eat the peels and when you apply them topically to your skin.
Essential Fatty Acids
According to Louise Tenney's book "Today's Herbal Health: An Essential Reference Guide," banana peels contain essential fatty acids that benefit your skin and can be an effective treatment for skin abnormalities, such as eczema, psoriasis and warts. Banana skin pulp can help kill warts in one to 12 weeks when applied directly onto the surface of the wart, according to the National Skin Care Institute.
Vitamins
Banana peels contain high amounts of certain vitamins that are important to human health, including vitamins A and B-6. Vitamin A helps your body maintain skin, teeth, bone, muscle, mucous membranes and skin. Vitamin A can also support your eyesight, especially when you are in low light. Vitamin B-6, also called pyridoxine, helps your brain produce hormones that maintain your central nervous system.
Minerals
The banana itself is best known for its abundance of potassium, but the banana peel also contains very high amounts of this essential mineral. The banana peel contains about 40 percent of the total potassium content found in the entire banana, meaning the peel has almost as much potassium as the banana itself, according to "Today's Herbal Health." Potassium is important for your heart, kidneys, muscles, nerves and digestive system to work properly. It is also important for the water balance in cells throughout your body.
Other Compounds
According to the book "Babushka's Beauty Secrets," written by esthetician Raisa Ruder, banana peels contain lutein. Lutein may be effective in the treatment of age-related eye disorders such as macular degeneration and may have cardiovascular benefits as well, although more research is necessary to confirm the effects of lutein on your heart. http://www.livestrong.com/article/520256-are-banana-peels-good-for-you/ Eating Banana Peels
Banana peels can be eaten raw, although they are purported to be ropey and have an unpleasant taste. Waiting for the fruit to ripen makes the skin much thinner, a little sweeter and easier to chew, according to “Contemporary Nutrition.” Some people prefer to boil the peel for 10 minutes or so before eating it, putting it through a juicer or blending it with other fruits. In Asian countries, banana peels are cooked with their flesh or fried on their own. Cleaning commercially grown bananas before you eat the skins is essential due to all the spraying that bananas are subjected to.
Other Health Uses
In addition to eating banana peels, they can be used to rub on your skin to stop itching, reduce inflammation, remove warts, smooth out wrinkles, get rid of acne, control psoriasis, and improve skin tone and texture. These are anecdotal claims, of course, but it's worth a try and certainly economical. http://www.livestrong.com/article/457082-what-are-the-benefits-of-eating-banana-peels/ Components of a Banana Peel
By Maria Kielmas eHow Contributor
Once a mere waste product, the banana peel has become a source of nutrients, an animal feedstock and a fertilizer. Bananas are the second most popular fruits consumed in the United States. The banana plant is large herb -- a member of the Musaceae family – that originated in tropical southern Asia. It grows to a height of between 6 and 20 feet. In modern times, it is the foremost fruit cultivated in tropical regions worldwide.
Organic Matter * Organic matter is the peel’s principal constituent. Proteins account for 0.9 percent by weight of the peel, lipids are 1.7 percent, carbohydrates are 59.1 percent and crude fiber is 31.7 percent. This composition makes the peel a good animal feedstock.
Water
* The water, or moisture, content of banana peels depend on the time of harvesting and ripening of banana fruit. It varies between 6 and 8 percent by weight of the peel.
Minerals
* Potassium is the mineral with the highest concentration, comprising 0.078 percent by weight of the peel, according to studies by Nigerian scientists. Potassium regulates body fluids and blood pressure. Manganese has a slightly lower concentration in the peel, with 0.076 percent. This mineral aids bone and cartilage formation. The calcium concentration is 0.019 percent, sodium is 0.024 percent and iron is 0.00061 percent. The presence of trace amounts of phosphorus together with the potassium make banana peels an excellent garden fertilizer.
Carbon
* When heated, the organic content of banana peels breaks down to its constituent carbon and gases to produce banana charcoal. The product originated in Uganda to substitute dwindling wood supplies as a cooking fuel.
Pectin
* Pectin is a gelling agent used in jam and confectionery production. It is sourced mostly from citrus fruit and apples. Banana peels contain a smaller amount of pectin than citrus fruits but more than sugar beets.
Anti-Nutrients
* Anti-nutrients are substances that are poisonous to humans and animals. Hydrogen cyanide concentration in a banana peel is 0.0013 percent by weight and well within the safety limit. Oxalates, which cause kidney diseases, are present at a low, safe level of 0.00051 percent. Saponins have a high 24 percent concentration. These compounds can cause paralysis of the sensory system and inhibit growth in swine and poultry. The saponin content must be removed if the peel is destined for animal feed.
Tannin
* Dried banana peels have 30 to 40 percent tannin content. This substance is used to treat and blacken leather. Fresh banana peels are an efficient shoe polisher.
References
* Electronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry: Chemical Composition of Musa Sapientum (Banana) Peels; Anhwanger, B.A. et al; 2009 * Purdue University: Agriculture; Banana * Down to Earth: Peel Potential; Manupriya; April 30, 2011 http://www.ehow.com/info_10033568_components-banana-peel.html How to Make Floor Wax From Bananas By Nick Grimes eHow Contributor *  * Floor waxing is essential to maintain the shiny gloss of wooden floors. However, if you find buying ready-made floor wax prohibitively expensive, it's possible to mix raw wax crystals and kerosene with banana peels to create a substance suitable for use polishing your wooden floors. This home-made floor wax will give a comparable shine and smoothness to that of commercial products, and the oil in the kerosene counteracts the banana peel's stickiness to ensure the finished sheen isn't tacky.
Things You'll Need * Large mixing pot * 28 oz. paraffin wax crystals * 3 1/2 oz. polyethylene wax crystals * 6 3/4 pt. kerosene * Peels from 10 to 15 full-sized bananas * 10 sq. ft. muslin sheet * 5 to 10 large glass jars

Instructions 1. Mix 28 oz. of paraffin and 3 1/2 oz. of polyethylene wax crystals in a large mixing pot. Melt over a low heat until the crystals are thoroughly melted and blended. 2. Pour in 6 3/4 pt. of kerosene and stir thoroughly without removing from the heat. 3. Add the fresh peels from 10 to 15 full-sized bananas. Add the peels one at a time and stir into the mixture until the peel has thoroughly disappeared beneath the surface. 4. Stir for three minutes then boil at a low heat for 15 minutes to allow the wax in the banana peels to thoroughly mix with the oils of the solution. Remove the pot from heat and strain through a muslin sheet into jars or molds while still warm. Allow the wax to cool and harden thoroughly before applying it to floors. http://www.ehow.com/how_7904137_make-floor-wax-bananas.html Candle – and it’s Components
A candle is basically made out of wax and the wax can also be bees wax. Further to add to its components it is also made of paraffin which is a petroleum byproduct, then there is stearin which is a palm wax, gel wax is made out of resins and some mineral oil, plant waxes is a product of soybean, carnauba, and palm also, tallow is not frequently used because of its cost and there are various low cost wax already available. All these components help making a candle but the wick of thecandle is the most important part for the burning of the candle and the size rate both are controlled by the wick. Simply a candle is made by melting the wax and then pouring the mixture into various moulds. But melting point has to be kept in mind by controlling the heat which is been applied. As the liquid is melted immediately the wick is immersed into the liquid to make liquid candle.

As we know that there are many components which contribute in the making of the candle, but the candle made out of the bees wax gives the best results because it burns more cleanly and also while burning gives fewer chemicals.candles made out of the high paraffin wax gives the best results the burning part is most important. Because if they give less fumes and smokes while burning then the quality is said to be good. Unlike the synthetic candles which are very smoky. A blend of good waxes or in fact the formulated waxes give a good burning. Wick of the candle is also one very important part because it holds the candle and its working is dependent on the capillary action i.e. when the fuel reaches the flames it vaporizes and then combusts. http://info-about-candle.weebly.com/candle-ndash-and-itrsquos-components.html What Is the Chemical Composition of Candle Wax
By Terry Hurley
If you love burning candles, you may be one of the many people that ask themselves the question, "What is the chemical composition of candle wax?" Although the question seems simple, the answer varies based on the different materials used to make the types of candle wax.
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Candle Wax Through the Ages
Throughout the centuries many types of materials have been used to make candle wax. From the times of the ancient civilizations to the 1800s, candle wax was made from raw materials including: * Tallow which is rendered animal fat * Beeswax * A derivative from the coccus pella insect * Boiled fruit of a cinnamon tree * Spermaceti made from the head oil of the sperm whale * Extracts of tree nuts
In the mid 1800s there were two major developments in the candle wax industry, stearin wax and paraffin wax. Stearin wax was developed from stearic acid extracted from the fatty acids of animals. This type of candle wax became popular in Europe. Paraffin wax, which became popular in the United States, was developed as a result of removing the natural waxy substance formed during the process of refining petroleum, or crude oil.
During the next 150 years many further developments of candle wax took place. These developments include: * Synthetic candle waxes * Chemically synthesized candle waxes * Gel wax * Vegetable based candle waxes * Candle wax blends * Custom candle wax formulas
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Common Characteristics of All Types of Candle Wax
Regardless of whether the origin of the candle wax is petroleum, animal or vegetable, all candle waxes share several common characteristics. * Basically hydrocarbons have chemical compositions that are similar but different * Solid at room temperature and liquid when heated, known as thermo plasticity * Low reactivity * Insoluble in water * Low toxicity * Smooth texture
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What Is the Chemical Composition of Candle Wax of the Most Popular Candle Today?
The most popular type of candle wax used today is paraffin wax. The chemical composition of paraffin wax is commonly referred to as C25H52 (carbon and hydrogen). However, the actual number of carbon atoms can typically range form 22 to 27. A wax molecule is known as a long hydrocarbon with its general chemical formula being CnH2n+2, with n being a varying number of carbon atoms (22-27). Although the chemical composition of the wax is always carbon and hydrogen, the actual number of atoms will vary based on the exact origin of the wax.
Three Types of Petroleum Candles Waxes
The chemical process used in refining crude oil results in three different types of petroleum-based candle waxes being produced. Each of these types of wax have slightly different chemical compositions. * Paraffin waxes have a melt point ranging from 120 to 160 degrees Fahrenheit and are straight chain hydrocarbons. * Microcrystallines waxes are generally used as an additive and are a mixture of saturated hydrocarbons with a high melt point and a low oil content. * Petroleum is a soft wax made from a mixture of microcrystalline wax and oil.
Beeswax Candles
Beeswax candles are favored by many people as they are said to burn cleaner, longer and brighter then candles made of other types of wax. This natural form of wax emits a light, delicate fragrance when it is burned. Its chemical formula is C15 H31 CO2 C30 H61.
Vegetable Based Candle Wax
The two most popular vegetable-based candle waxes are soy and palm. At this time there are no regulations in place for the composition of vegetable-based candle wax. However, soy wax candles must contain at least 25 percent soybean oil in order to be labeled soy wax candles.
Gel Candle Waxes
Gel candle wax is made form hydrocarbon based stock and is transparent. The wax is produced in several densities including low-polymer, medium-polymer and high polymer gel.
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Additional Factors Affecting the Chemical Composition of Candle Wax
Additional factors affecting the answer to the question, "What is the chemical composition of candle wax?" include: * The addition of fragrance oils * The addition of colorants * Various combinations and blends of waxes

Although every type of candle wax is a hydrocarbon, each one has its own chemical composition. http://candles.lovetoknow.com/What_Is_the_Chemical_Composition_of_Candle_Wax Candle
One of the earliest forms of portable illumination, candles have served vital functions for humankind throughout history, a fact chronicled through the discovery of candles or candle-like objects in virtually every society. Historians believe the original candle may have been invented by primitive men who dipped dried branches in animal fat, thus producing a slow-burning and reliable source of light. Reliefs belonging to the ancient Egyptians depict the use of candles by writers and philosophers who worked well after sundown. These early candles were most likely developed from tapers that were made of fibrous materials mixed with wax or tallow (the white, nearly tasteless fat of cattle or sheep that was also used to make soap, margarine, and lubricants). As far back as 3000 B.C. , dish-shaped candles were used on the island of Crete.
Candles have also been used for religious purposes. The Bible, for instance, makes numerous references to the use of candles, including the story of King Solomon who, after building the Temple, used ten candle-sticks to light the north and south ends of the structure. In the Middle Ages, candlemaking became a popular occupation, as evidenced by the creation of many candlemakers' guilds throughout Europe. Later, candles were used as a means of keeping time. At auctions, the bidding time was limited by inserting a pin into a candle and letting the wax melt until the pin dropped, thus concluding that period of time.
Although the materials that comprise a candle have changed through the years, the art of candlemaking has remained surprisingly similar to the original production processes. Candle wicks were, at first, made of reeds or rushes; eventually, various natural fibers were used. In 1824,Frenchman Jean-Jacques Cambaraceres introduced an important refinement in wick technology with the plaited wick, which burned more evenly than unplaited wicks. Twisted or plaited cotton still makes up most wicks today.
Animal or vegetable fats were used for the first candles. As candlemaking technology progressed, beeswax became widely used, mainly because of its pleasing odor and the absence of the mess that melting fats produced.
After the Revolutionary War, the whaling industry in America skyrocketed. However, not every type of whale was cherished solely for its blubber. The sperm whale was also used for its spermaceti—the wax taken from the oil of this huge mammal. This wax was used extensively as the fishing industry began to expand. The spermaceti candle was popular because it had no acrid odor, did not soften in summer temperatures, and burned evenly. Ozokerite, a colorless mineral hydrocarbon wax with a high melting point, was also popular in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. As candle technology advanced, animal fats were separated, leaving behind more desirable solid fatty acids such as stearine that had no odor and gave a brighter light. Paraffin, a wax crystallized from petroleum, became popular during the 1860s and was eventually blended with spermaceti and ceresin—a byproduct of refined petroleum oil—to create a more durable wax.
The original candles were produced through the dipping method. Dating back to the Middle Ages, this method used wicks made

After the wax base is heated into a clear, near-liquid state, it is filtered to remove any impurities that might interfere with the finished candle's burning process. Any dyes or perfumes are added at this time. from dried rushes, which were peeled on all but one side, revealing the pith. The wicks were repeatedly dipped into the molten fat until the fat had stuck to the wick at a desired thickness. Beeswax candles were constructed using both the dipping method and pouring method. In the pouring method, the melted beeswax is poured over a suspended cotton wick while the wick is simultaneously and manually twirled. After a sufficient amount of wax has gathered at the bottom of the wick, the candled is reversed and poured from the other end.
Large-scale manufacture of candles became a reality only after 1834, when Joseph Morgan introduced the first mass-production candlemaking machine. Today's modern machines are strikingly similar to that original machine, with speed, accuracy and finished quality the only major differences.
Raw Materials
As mentioned earlier, the types of wax used in the construction of candles have changed greatly during the past few centuries. Today, substances are often mixed together to create stronger candles with higher melting points. In the United States, standard commercial candles usually contain 60 percent paraffin, 35 percent stearic acid, and 5 percent beeswax. Some candles contain small amounts of candelilla or carnauba waxes (from the carnauba palm) to regulate the softening or melting point of the finished wax. Beeswax candles are made of only pure insect wax and paraffin plus a small amount of stiffening wax. The wick is made of a high grade of cotton or linen. The material is woven (or braided) so that it will burn in one direction and will curl so that its end remains in the candle flame's oxidizing zone for even and intense burning. Often, wire-core wicks are used. These wicks have a wire center that allows them to burn slightly hotter than cotton and remain erect in the melted wax.
Decorative candles often use waxes other than beeswax and paraffin. Bayberry wax (or wax myrtle, as it is sometimes referred to) is derived from the fruit of the bayberry bush and has a distinctive aroma making it especially popular for use at Christmas. Non-burning wax is used in those parts of a candle—mostly the shells or ornaments of decorative candles—that are not intended to burn.
The Manufacturing
Process
The manufacturing of candles consists of three steps: preparation of the wicking, preparation of the wax base, and continuous molding or extrusion of the finished candles.
Making the wick * 1 The cotton or linen wicks are braided and then treated with chemicals or inorganic salt solutions so that they bend at a 90 degree angle when burning. This angle allows the end to remain in the outer mantle of the flame and causes it to be shortened naturally. If the wick is not treated, it will burn too quickly and the flame will be extinguished by the melted wax. However, if the wick burns too

One method of forming candles is to extrude the wax through a die of the desired shape. A wick bobbin feeds wick into the center of the mold so that the wax forms around the wick. Unlike molding, extrusion forms one continuous length of candle that must be cut into the proper sizes. slowly, then the amount of exposed wick increases and the candle becomes dangerous.
Preparing the wax base * 2 First, the wax is heated and melted into a clear, near-liquid state in huge metal kettles. Wax melted by direct flame can become dark-colored or can contain small pieces of carbon char. Next, the molten wax must be carefully filtered to remove impurities that may interfere with the burning process. Any desired perfumes and dyes are added at this time. Although most wax arriving at the manufacturer conforms to strict purity standards, many companies still filter their wax to be sure of a high-quality finished product.
Molding the candle * 3 Since the invention of Morgan's first candlemaking machine, the construction of candles has been performed mainly by continuous molding machines, although manual machines are still used by some companies. Continuous molding machines are designed to make candles in groups ranging anywhere from 50 to 500 per load. The entire process takes almost 30 minutes per load. * 4 Prior to the pouring of the wax, the wick is pulled through the tip of the mold. This tip has a hole in it through which the wick passes from a spool located beneath the entire molding machine. The molds, which are made of tin, have polished interior surfaces and are slightly tapered for easier ejection of the finished candle. * 5 The wax is cooled to slightly above its melting point and poured into a molding table located above the molds. The wax then works its way into each mold; the molds are pre-heated so the wax will flow evenly into them. After the wax is poured, a jacket around each mold is filled with cold water to speed up the solidification process. Once the wax has solidified, the finished candles are pulled upwards out of the molds, allowing the wicks to again thread through the molds in preparation for the next load of candles. The wicks are snipped, and the process begins again. Excess wax is trimmed, collected and re-used. The continuous molding process is used to make cylindrical, tapered or fluted candles as long as they can be easily ejected from the mold.
Extrusion
* 6 An alternate method uses extrusion, a process in which crushed paraffin wax is forced through a heated steel die under extreme pressure. At the same time, the wax is consolidated around the wick. Unlike molding machines, extrusion machines produce a continuous length of candle, which is then cut into specific sizes. Next, the tips of the candles are formed by rotation cutters, and the candles are sent to an automated packing machine.
Where To Learn More
Books
Constable, David. Candlemaking. Schwartz, Arthur & Co., Inc., 1993.
Millington, Deborah. Tradition Candle-making: Simple Methods of Manufacture. Intermediate Technology Development Group of North America, 1992.
Shaw, Ray. Candle Art. William Morrow, 1973.
Taylor, Richard. Beeswax Molding & Candle Making. Linden Books, 1985.
Webster, William and Claire McMullen. Contemporary Candlemaking. Doubleday, 1972.
Webster, William and Claire McMullen. The Complete Book of Candlemaking. Doubleday, 1973.
Periodicals
Rupp, Becky. "The Art of Candle Making," Blair & Ketchum's Country Journal. January, 1986, p. 57.
— Jim Acton http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Candle.html Read more: http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Candle.html#ixzz3lDf78eIo

Read more: http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Candle.html#ixzz3lDezU3VO
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Kerosene

Chemical compound
Written by: The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica * 1 * * * * * READ * VIEW HISTORY * EDIT * FEEDBACK
Alternative titles: coal oil; kerosine; paraffin; paraffin oil
Kerosene, also spelled kerosine, also called paraffin or paraffin oil, flammable hydrocarbonliquid commonly used as a fuel. Kerosene is typically pale yellow or colourless and has a not-unpleasant characteristic odour. It is obtained from petroleum and is used for burning in kerosene lamps and domestic heaters or furnaces, as a fuel or fuel component for jet engines, and as a solvent for greases and insecticides.
Discovered by Canadian physician Abraham Gesner in the late 1840s, kerosene was initially manufactured from coal tarand shale oils. However, following the drilling of the first oil well in Pennsylvania by E.L. Drake in 1859, petroleum quickly became the major source of kerosene. Because of its use in lamps, kerosene was the major refinery product for several decades until the advent of the electric lamp reduced its value for lighting. Production further declined as the rise of the automobile established gasoline as an important petroleum product. Nevertheless, in many parts of the world, kerosene is still a common heating and cooking fuel as well as a fuel for lamps. Standard commercial jet fuel is essentially a high-quality straight-run kerosene, and many military jet fuels are blends based on kerosene.
Chemically, kerosene is a mixture of hydrocarbons. The chemical composition depends on its source, but it usually consists of about 10 different hydrocarbons, each containing 10 to 16 carbon atoms per molecule. The main constituents are saturated straight-chain and branched-chain paraffins, as well as ring-shaped cycloparaffins (also known as naphthenes). Kerosene is less volatile than gasoline. Its flash point (the temperature at which it will generate a flammable vapour near its surface) is 38 °C (100 °F) or higher, whereas that of gasoline is as low as −40 °C (−40 °F). This property makes kerosene a relatively safe fuel to store and handle.
With a boiling point between about 150 and 300 °C (300–575 °F), kerosene is considered to be one of the so-called middle distillates of crude oil, along with diesel fuel. It can be produced as “straight-run kerosene,” separated physically from the other crude oil fractions by distillation, or it can be produced as “cracked kerosene,” by chemically decomposing, orcracking, heavier portions of the oil at elevated temperatures. http://www.britannica.com/science/kerosene What's the difference between gasoline, kerosene, diesel, etc?
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The "crude oil" pumped out of the ground is a black liquid calledpetroleum. This liquid containsaliphatic hydrocarbons, or hydrocarbons composed of nothing but hydrogen and carbon. The carbon atoms link together in chains of different lengths.
It turns out that hydrocarbon molecules of different lengths have different properties and behaviors. For example, a chain with just one carbon atom in it (CH4) is the lightest chain, known as methane. Methane is a gas so light that it floats like helium. As the chains get longer, they get heavier.
The first four chains -- CH4(methane), C2H6 (ethane), C3H8 (propane) and C4H10 (butane) -- are all gases, and they boil at -161, -88, -46 and -1 degrees F, respectively (-107, -67, -43 and -18 degrees C). The chains up through C18H32 or so are all liquids at room temperature, and the chains above C19 are all solids at room temperature.
So what's the real chemical difference between gasoline, kerosene and diesel? It has to do with their boiling points. We'll get into that on the next page.

Carbon Chains in Petroleum Products
The different chain lengths have progressively higher boiling points, so they can be separated out bydistillation. This is what happens in an oil refinery -- crude oil is heated and the different chains are pulled out by their vaporization temperatures. (See How Oil Refining Works for details.)
The chains in the C5, C6 and C7 range are all very light, easily vaporized, clear liquids called naphthas. They are used as solvents -- dry cleaning fluids can be made from these liquids, as well as paint solvents and other quick-drying products.
The chains from C7H16 through C11H24 are blended together and used for gasoline. All of them vaporize at temperatures below the boiling point of water. That's why if you spill gasoline on the ground it evaporates very quickly.
Next is kerosene, in the C12 to C15 range, followed by diesel fuel and heavier fuel oils (like heating oil for houses).
Next come the lubricating oils. These oils no longer vaporize in any way at normal temperatures. For example, engine oil can run all day at 250 degrees F (121 degrees C) without vaporizing at all. Oils go from very light (like 3-in-1 oil) through various thicknesses of motor oil through very thick gear oils and then semi-solid greases. Vasoline falls in there as well.
Chains above the C20 range form solids, starting with paraffin wax, then tar and finally asphaltic bitumen, which is used to make asphalt roads.
All of these different substances come from crude oil. The only difference is the length of the carbon chains!
Still curious about petroleum uses and processing? Check out the links on the next page for related articles and quizzes to test your knowledge.

The science of candles by Chris Woodford. Last updated: July 11, 2015.
Imagine if there were noelectricity and you had to survive up to 12 hours of darkness each night by candlelight! It sounds wonderful in our age of cold, sterile, fluorescent light. But if you had to live that way all the time you'd find it an awful lot of bother, especially if your house had many candles, all burning at once. You'd not only have to keep the wicks burning brightly, you'd also have to ensure they weren't going to tip over and cause a fire. Drawbacks aside, candles will always be a symbol of romance. Look more closely and you'll also find they're classic examples of ingenious technology. Let's take a closer look at how they work!
Photo: Who says science isn't romantic... or romance isn't scientific? Candles are a great example of how science adds an extra dimension to the beauty of the natural world—a point the brilliant American physicist Richard Feynman was fond of making. Listen to him discussing the question: Can a scientist really enjoy the beauty of a flower?
How candles use combustion

Candles make light by making heat, so they're crude examples of what we callincandescent lamps (old-fashioned, electric filament lamps, pioneered in the late 19th century by Thomas Edison, are a much more sophisticated version of the same idea). All the light a candle makes comes from a chemical reaction known as combustion in which the wax (made from carbon-based chemicals typically derived from petroleum) reacts with oxygen in the air to make a colorless gas called carbon dioxide. Water is also produced in the form of steam. Since the wax never burns perfectly cleanly, there's also a little smoke produced. The smoke is an aerosol (tiny particles of solid, unburned carbon from the wax mixed in with the steam) and it often leaves a black, carbon deposit on nearby walls or the ceiling above where the candle's burning. The steam is made in the blue part of a candle flame, where the wax burns cleanly with lots of oxygen; the smoke is made in the bright, yellow part of the flame, where there isn't enough oxygen for perfect combustion to take place.
Artwork: How a candle works: A candle is a miniature chemical factory that converts the hydrocarbons (molecules based on the atoms hydrogen and carbon) in wax into carbon dioxide and water (steam) through the chemical reaction we call combustion. Oxygen is pulled in at the bottom, fuel is drawn up the wick, and heat is given off at the top where the hot air rises.
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What is wax anyway?
You might think wax is just... well, wax, but it's actually quite a tricky thing to define.
The word "wax" is a bit like the word "plastic": it refers to a collection of different substances with similar properties. Just as we should talk about "plastics" (because there are many different ones), so we should talk about waxes.

Waxes are mainly defined by their physical properties, not their chemical properties. For our purposes, we can think of a wax as a complex mixture of fatty organic chemicals that has waxlike properties: * It has a relatively low melting point above room temperature (50°–90°C) and melts without decomposition above 40°C. * It has relatively low viscosity just above the melting point. * It has no viscoelasticity (deforms and gradually returns to shape after a force is applied). * It can be polished (buffed) and becomes plastic above 20°C with slight pressure. * It burns with a sooty flame (the characteristic property of a candle). * It's a poor conductor (of both heat and electricity).
Photo: Wax in action: Three everyday waxes. Top: A beeswax candle. Left: A tin of carnauba wax shoe polish. Right: Surfboard wax, typically made from beeswax, paraffin, or hard synthetic waxes.
References
* Waxes: Structure, Composition, Occurrence, and Analysis by William W. Christie, American Oil Chemists Society, 2012. * "Waxes" by J. David Bower. In Coatings Technology Handbook, Third Edition. Edited by Arthur A. Tracton. CRC Press, 2005. * Nanotechnologies for Solubilization and Delivery in Foods, Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals by Nissim Garti. DEStech Publications, 2012, p.259.
How a candle wick works

Candles may look simple but they're remarkably ingenious. Set fire to the wick (the little string poking up at the top) and heat travels rapidly downward toward the wax body of the candle beneath. The wax has a low melting point so it instantly turns into a hot liquid and vaporizes, funneling straight up around the wick as though it's rushing up an invisible smokestack (chimney). The wax vapor catches light and burns, sending a flame high above the wick. Heat from the flame travels in three directions at once by processes called conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction carries heat down the wick to melt more wax at the top of the candlestick. Convection draws hot wax vapors out from the wick and sucks oxygen from the surrounding air into the base of the flame. The flame also gives off invisible beams of heat in all directions by radiation. The candle continues to "feed" on the wax underneath it until it's all burned away—until all the potential energy locked away in the wax is converted to heat, light, and chemical waste products.
Which part of a candle flame is the hottest?
Here are some approximate temperatures for the different parts of a candle and its flame. Note that the exact temperatures vary quite a bit depending on all kinds of different factors, notably the type of wax from which the candle is made but also the ambient (air) temperature, and how much oxygen is present. Please don't take these values as absolutely definitive ones that apply in all cases—they're just a rough guide. 1. Wick: 400°C (750°F). 2. Blue/white outer edge of the flame (and also the blue cone underneath flame where the oxygen enters): 1400°C (2550°F). 3. Yellow central region of the brightest part of the flame: 1200°C (2190°F). 4. Dark brown/red inner part of the flame: 1000°C (1830°F). 5. Red/orange inner part of the flame: 800°C (1470°F). 6. Body of the candle: 40-50°C (104-122°F). 7. Melted pool of wax on top of the candle: 60°C (140°F).

Perhaps surprisingly, the brightest part of the flame is not the hottest. The blazing part of the flame gives off three quarters of its energy as light and only a quarter as heat (so you can see a candle is, at best, around 75 percent efficient as a lamp). The hottest parts of a candle flame are actually the blue, almost invisible area near the base, where oxygen is drawn in, and the blue/white part around the edge, where the flame meets the oxygen-rich air all around it. The flame gets progressively cooler as you move in from the outside edge toward the wick. Cooler areas are darker and colored orange, red, or brown. Most of the flame's heat is delivered toward the tip, where a large volume of gas is always burning and convection is sweeping hot gases constantly upwards. If you want to heat something with a candle, hold it near the tip.
Chart: There's a wide range of temperatures in the relatively small space that a burning candle occupies. What does that tells us? Apart from anything else, it suggests the wax from which a candle is made must be a relatively poor conductor of heat.
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Do candles burn in space?
The answer's no, yes, and maybe. "No", because there's no oxygen in space. "Yes", because you can burn candles in a spaceship where there's an artificial supply of air. The answer's "maybe" because candles don't burn in the microgravity of space exactly as they burn back here on Earth. There's no "up" and "down" in space, so there's no "top" or "bottom" of a candle flame either. Convection doesn't draw cooler oxygen in at the bottom and throw hot exhaust gases out at the top, as it does here on Earth, where hotter gases are less dense (weigh less per unit of volume) than cooler ones. In the microgravity of space, with plenty of oxygen, candle flames are more spherical, as this NASA photograph clearly shows:

Photo: Candles burning on Earth (left) and in space microgravity (right).
Photo courtesy of NASA Glenn Research Center (NASA-GRC).
Photo: Candles don't burn all by themselves. It takes energy to kick-start the chemical combustion reaction that makes the wax burn. The initial energy you need to start a reaction is called activation energy. You can provide it using a burning match.
http://www.explainthatstuff.com/candles.html