...The many schools of thought in Psychology attempt to define Psychology and promote one specific method of studying the brain. The text shows that the individual schools of thought come together in examining the mechanics of the brain and how it makes us human. Structuralism is the first school of thought that promoted the structure of consciousness. By studying consciousness it was belief that one could understand the basis for psychology. This was a method that advocated introspection as a form of study, along with developing a sort of periodic table for human consciousness. Experimentation in this school of thought can be perceived of as unscientific in that it requires honest introspection into oneself. Reporting thoughts and feelings on a moment by moment basis proves very unreliable because of the fact humans are often time not truly honest. Functionalism is the second school of thought in which the functionality of psychological processes and how people interact with things around them. William James is the first person to write a textbook for psychology. Whereas structuralism studied the structure of psychology, functionalists in this school of thought were interested in discovering the reason the brain works the way it does using experimentation not specifically related to human beings. Functionalists experimented not only with animals but also with brains that functioned improperly. The Psychodynamic school of thought was promoted by Sigmund Freud who developed early...
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...Entrepreneurial School of Thought This school sees strategy formation as a visionary process and is fell under the descriptive school of strategic management. The chief architect of the strategy is the CEO of a company. This school took formal leadership seriously and CEO is responsible for strategy formulation. It stressed on mental state and processes such as instinctive knowledge, belief, wisdom, experience and insight of a single leader. The leader should be visionary in formulating strategy. The entrepreneurial school promotes strategy as a process which has a clear image and sense of direction which can be termed as a vision. Entrepreneurial strategy often occurs in startup companies and organizations in trouble and needing a turnaround. For any organization to sustain success it must engage in some form of entrepreneurial activity in order to effectively compete in the marketplace and continue to increase stakeholder value. In this school the organization becomes responsive to only one person, the CEO and vision is the central concept of this school. Vision is the mental representation of a leader and it outlines what the organization wants to be or how it wants the world in which it operates to be. It is a long term view and concentrates on the future. It can be emotive and source of inspiration. It serves as a guiding idea and often tends to be a kind of image than a fully clear plan. Visions are often flexible so that the leaders can change them as they like. Visionary...
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...Schools of Management Thought SCHOOLS OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT Structure 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Objectives Introduction Historical Perspective Theory in Management Classification of Management Theories Classical Management Theory 4.5.1 Scientific Management 4.5.2 Administrative Management 4.5.3 Bureaucratic Organization 4.5.4 Criticisms on Classical Management Theory 4.6 Neo-Classical Theory 4.6.1 Human-Relations School 4.6.2 Behavioural Schools 4.7 Modem Management Theory 4.7.1 Systems Theory 4.1.2 Contingency Theory 4.7.3 Organizational Humanism 4.7.4 Management Science 4.8 Other Schools of Thoughts, Styles and Approaches 4.9 Problems and Conflicts in Management Theories 4.10 Summary 4.11 Key Words 4.12 References and Further Reading 4.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this Unit, you will be able to • know the historical development of schools of management thought; • explain what a theory in management is; • outline the classification of management theories; • describe important schools of management, their contributions and limitations; • elaborate problems and conflicting issues in management theory; and 4.1 INTRODUCTION In the preceding three units of this block you have learnt various scientific principles of management, management functions and what constitutes managerial quality and leadership as propounded by management experts. In this Unit you will have a historical perspective of management approaches or thoughts. The block in toto will set the background about various...
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... In other words the study of one’s feelings, thoughts, and why people act the way they do. When studying psychology there are five major schools of thought, Behaviorism, Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic, Humanistic, and Cognitive. Each of these different schools of thought has their very own views on behavior and one’s mind. Behaviorism is the study of psychology that believes in observation of one’s behavior with the thought that all of one’s behaviors such as emotions, thoughts, and even doing simple everyday things are all forms of behavior. Behavioralists believe that environmental stimuli are what contributes to one’s behavior and that this can all be studied through observation of animals and people. (Kowalski & Westen, 2011) John B. Watson is the founder of this field of study in psychology. Behaviorists also believe that it is impossible to study the mind without observation and usually conduct their studies by doing experiments to try and control behavior. An example of this would be Ivan Pavlov’s dogs. He did a study with dogs and learned that when they would hear a particular sound they would begin to salivate just like they would if they actually had food in front of them. By using this sound he could control the dogs. The psychodynamic perspective is the perspective that focuses on the dynamic interplay of mental forces. This perspective was made by Sigmund Freud who believed that just as we have conscious thoughts, we also have unconscious motives that lead us...
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...Major School of Thoughts in Psychology Adel Pena PSY/300 December 07, 2011 Dr. Delvida Long Major School of Thoughts in Psychology A realm of thought and emotions researched since the 1870s by many, in clinical studies, through science and technology is Psychology. Psychology is often known as “the scientific investigation of mental processes (thinking, remembering, feeling, etc.) and behavior. Understanding a person requires attention to the individual’s biology, psychological experiences, and cultural context.” (Kowalski & Westen, 2009, p.3) This paper will indulge into the foundation of psychology and the assumptions attributed with it. The two major schools of thought in psychology are known as structuralism and functionalism. Other schools of thought are also behaviorism, psychodynamic, and cognitive. Now in regard to the two major schools, structuralism is known as the first school of psychology and can be attributed to Edward Titchener and Wilhelm Wundt. They were interested in studying the structure of consciousness and wanted to compose a chart similar to the periodic table to illustrate the elements of human consciousness. Structuralism is supposed to break down the mental process in its simplest of forms and also through introspection. Titchener believed that experimentation was the only way to develop a method of psychology that did not apply too much “free...
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...Environmental Issues and Schools of Thought An environmental issue greatly affecting the Florida Gulf Coast counties are the protection of the shores and beaches. Through recent years there have been oil spills in the gulf that have threatened numerous environments, endangered species, as well as hurt the tourism industry. The most threatening spill was the famous BP oil spill of 2010. This spill devastated numerous species of wildlife and hurt businesses for years. Although this is an ongoing threat, the greedy oil industry is still pushing for more offshore drilling which is forcing activists of all organizations to step up and fight their plans for more drilling. There two schools of thought that should be taken into account for people dealing with this issue. The first is pluralism. The state's elected leaders need to see both sides to this issue so they can vote and make an elected decision. If they were to see both sides to this environmental problem then they could come up with a strategy to have both sides agree to the plan. Without the idea of pluralism there would be no way to understand all aspects of this issue. The other school of thought relative to this issue is ethical extensionism, which means that all things in nature should be extended moral standing. People with this view will this these animals that have no say in the matter, but should be thought of in any decisions made. They are just as important to Florida's coast as humans are to the boating...
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...History of Economic Thought September 6, 2012 The Mercantilist School 1. What Was the Historical Background of the School? Mercantilisms were a group of writers and thinkers who prevailed in Europe after the decline of feudalism in the early 15th century and the beginning of the Industrial revolution in 1780 (Mathur). The use of money expanded and trade increased within each country and between countries (Brue Grant 13). The focus was on the economic competition, they believed that politics must control economics. The Europeans explored and extended the sphere of commerce part due to the development of navigation (Brue Grant 13). The primary objective of the Mercantilism was to increase the power of the nation state. The more gold a nation had the richer and more powerful it became. Intense rivalry and competition among states began. Mercantilists believed the way for a nation to become rich and powerful was to export more than it imported. “The mercantilist school superseded feudal concepts, encouraged nationalism, gave new dignity and importance to the merchant, and justified a policy of economic and military expansion” (Brue Grant 13). 2. What Were the Major Tenets of the School? The main principles of the Mercantilism School are as follows: Wealth was power, and therefore the objective of the country was to maximize its wealth through the possession of gold and silver it possessed. (Brue Grant 14). Trade policy tended to be to import raw materials...
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...1. What are the features of the major management thought schools? The major schools of management theory can be, according to the author Koontz, classified into six main groups: 1) The Management Process School: which deals with management as being a process of getting things done through and with people operating in organized groups. This school is also called the “traditional” or “universalist” school, and is fathered by Henri Fayol. It views management theory as a way of organizing experience for practice, research and teaching. It begins by defining the functions of managers. 2) The Empirical School: which deals with management as being a study of experience that has to be taught and transferred to the practitioner or student. Koontz mentions Ernest Dale's comparative approach as an example which involves the study and analysis of cases. The general idea is that generalizations can be drawn from cases that can be applied as guides in similar situations. 3) The Human Behavior School: which believes that since managing involves getting things done with and through people, then the study of management must be centered on interpersonal relations. It’s also called the “human relations”, “leadership”, or “behavioral sciences” approach. Its theory focuses on the motivation of the individual viewed as a socio-psychological being. 4) The Social System School: which identifies the nature of the cultural relationships of various social groups and attempts to show these as a related...
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...are different school of thoughts that are used to analyze different environmental issues. Biocentric focuses on all life forms as equally important in contrast to anthropocentric that focus primarily on human needs and interest. Generally anthropocentric school of thought will put the human needs above those of other species and nature creating a ethical issue as well as environmental issues. This is due to the thoughts that the animals, plants, and nature are all tools to satisfy human needs. For example, the need for human homes is greater than that of the animals living in a certain area. Thus the animals would be relocated to suit the human needs. On the other hand, with Biocentric the need for human homes is just as important as the need for animals to stay in their environmental habitat. Furthermore there is controversy with the biocentric school of thought in regards to the fact that humans are the most intelligent dominant species on earth. They are rapidly growing which should mean that their needs be put in front of those of the smaller less intelligent species. It also does not give thought to the need of one species to be more than that of another species. For example humans have a growing population and need more and more food to survive, this means that more and more farms will be built to satisfy this need. Moreover more animals will be used up to satisfy this need as well. Additionally there are concerns with the anthropocentric school of thought due to its...
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...Food for Thought: Improving School Lunch Programs Clorissa Torres Lindsay Ludvigsen English 115 February 20, 2013 Schools across the nation have implemented a new breakfast & lunch program, to include healthier choices amongst children, adolescents and teens eating in their school cafeterias every day. The program was designed to allow the children attending school to receive healthy, low cost or free meals while fighting childhood obesity and hunger. The National School Lunch Program is a federally-assisted program implemented across the nation within public or non-profit private schools and day cares with children high school age & under. The program itself is costing 11.1 billion dollars to run in 2012-13 which is only 5.73 percent of the US budget. The money it is costing the US to run the program is allowing 32 million children a chance to have at least two whole meals a day, with a possible snack if they participate in a school-based after school programs. The USDA also provides the schools participating with federal cash and commodity support. The program entails that for each child who receives free lunch, the school will get $2.86 cents back, for each child who receives reduced lunch the school will get $2.46 cents back & for each child who pays for lunch the school will get $.70 cents back ; this also entails that for every snack a child receives free the school will receive $.78 cents, for every snack a child receives reduced the school...
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...A Summary of the Key Thought Leaders of the Classical School of Management Beth J. Beal Mary Baldwin College BUAD200L WA SP2014 Principles of Management A Summary of the Key Thought Leaders of the Classical School of Management Introduction According to Daft (2009) "Management is the attainment of organizational goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning, organizing, leading, and controlling organizational resources." The classical school of management often referred to as the "Classical School of Thought" was born in the early 1900s out of a need to run organizations efficiently, and it is so named because it comprises the first works and contributions that make up the core of modern management theory. Classical theorists viewed workers as a production instrument and were interested in finding ways to use people efficiently or in "one best way" through the application of science (Lindsey, 1998). It was also during this period of development that the five basic functions of management were identified: planning, organizing, command, coordination, and controlling (Wren, 1994). These five functions are often referred to as "the management process" (Wren, 1994). The classical viewpoint sought to find ways to manage work and run the organization in the most efficient manner, and is made up of the following three major approaches. The scientific management approach represented by the work of Frederick W. Taylor and supporting efforts of Frank and Lillian...
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...PROHIBITION OF RIBA FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF FOUR MAIN SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT Introduction In the comprehensive and restrictive meaning, riba is defined as “any increment incurred upon specific ribawi (usurious) items originated either from debt or trading transactions”. Apart from its literal meaning of “increase”, classical Islamic scholars such as Ibn Arabi, Mujahid and Tabari interpreted riba as an ‘increase without wealth (mal) attached to it’, or as ‘compensation for waiting’ or ‘increase of amount owing to the lenders due to the deferment of payment resulted from extension of original loan tenure’. Such interpretation encompasses riba from debt transaction (i.e. riba ad-duyun) as well as riba from trading of the six ribawi items (i.e. riba al buyu’). The prohibition of riba appears in Al-Quran in four different revelations. The first of these is in Surah Ar-Rum ayyat 39 which emphasized on moral denunciation for those who gives riba and commendation for those who contribute tithe (zakat). The second revelation is in Surah An-Nisa ayyat 161 concerning riba and the Jews. It severely condemned the Jews who took riba despite they were forbidden to do so. The third revelation in Surah Ali Imran ayyat 130 enjoined the Muslims to keep away themselves from riba and the fourth revelation in Surah Al-Baqarah ayyat 275-278 delineate the strong verdict against riba especially the two excerpts from ayyat 275 which stated that “Those who devour riba will not stand except as one...
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...Explain the link between anarchism and utopianism. 15marks Utopianism is the idea of the perfect society with the abolition of want, conflict and oppression. This is a core theme within anarchism due to their desire to achieve a utopian society without the need for an oppressive and unnecessary state. Due to the end goal of anarchism it has to have a positive and optimistic view of human nature. Collectivist anarchists see humans as social creatures alike to the ideas of socialism which is where this branch of anarchism roots derived from. They believe that humans have the ability to be cooperative in their behaviour if there weren’t an oppressive state forcing people to be alienated from others. Individualist anarchists have roots from liberalism therefore they see the importance and hold a belief in enlightened human reason. However their positive view of human nature is a contradiction as Proudhon highlighted that corruption can be a part of everyone even if their core is morally enlightened. This shows that there is a clear link between utopianism and anarchism as anarchism is based on this idea of a perfect society. The main achievement of anarchism is to form a stateless society as they see it as evil and unnecessary. Godwin disagreed with Hobbes view of human nature instead Godwin believed that it wasn’t human nature that was greedy and selfish but it was the sovereign state that is a corrupting influence on individuals lives. Therefore to achieve utopianism society...
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...Write two pages on debate of effectiveness of fiscal policy for output and employment under different schools of thought. Fiscal Policy : Fiscal policy is carried out by the governmental and/or the policymaking branches of government. The two main instruments of fiscal policy are government expenditures and taxes. The government collects taxes in order to fund expenses on a number of public goods and services for example, hospitals and national defense. Deficits and Surpluses in the Budget: The budget deficit, which is the difference between government expenditures and tax revenues, is funded by government borrowing; the government issues long‐term, interest‐bearing bonds and uses the proceeds to finance the deficit. The total store of government bonds and interest payments outstanding, from both the present and the past, is known as the national debt. Thus, when the government finances a deficit by borrowing, it is adding to the national debt. When government expenditures are less than tax revenues in a given year, the government is running a budget surplus for that year. The budget surplus is the difference between tax revenues and government expenditures. The revenues from the budget surplus are typically used to reduce any existing national debt. In the case where government expenditures are exactly equal to tax revenues in a given year, the government is running a balanced budget for that year. Expansionary and contractionary fiscal policy: Expansionary fiscal...
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...Comparison and contrast of content between two content of school of thought in motivation theory: Comparative analysis between Maslow’s Theory and Herzberg’s Theory: In terms of meaning: Maslow’s theory relies on the construct of human desires and their satisfaction whereas Herzberg’s theory relies on the employment of motivators which incorporates action, recognition and chance for growth. Basis of theory: Maslow’s theory relies on the hierarchy of human desires. He provided 5 sets of human needs (on priority basis) and their satisfaction in motivating workers whereas he refers to hygiene factors and motivating factors in his theory. Hygiene factors are dissatisfies whereas motivating factors encourage subordinate. Hierarchal arrangement of want isn't given. Nature of theory: Maslow’s theory is quite straightforward and descriptive, the speculation relies long expertise regarding human desires, whereas Herzberg’s theory is additional prescriptive. It suggests the motivating factors which may be used effectively. The speculation relies on actual info collected by nuclear physicist once interviewing 203 engineers and accountants. Applicability of theory: Maslow’s theory is that the hottest and wide cited theory of motivation and has wide pertinence. It’s principally applicable to poor and developing countries wherever cash remains a giant motivating issue, whereas Herzberg’s theory is an extension of Maslow’s theory of motivation. It’s on the opposite hand applicable to made...
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