Assess sociological explanations for science and ideology as a belief system (33)
Hannah-Mae Neve 13D
Science has had an enormous impact on society over the last few centuries. The achievements in medicines have eradicated many fatal diseases; through which people have developed a large faith in science and so has become a strong belief system. However, it has been recognised that although science resolves many issues, it also creates problems. This contentious nature brought about a dimmed faith as science has created its own risks that increasingly threaten the planet such as global warming and nuclear weapons. Ideology is a worldview or a set of ideas and values. The main issues surround ideology as a belief system is that every set of beliefs is very one-sided. Each person only believes in their ideologies and is likely to be unwelcoming to any others. Consequently, friction and tension is built within society.
According to Sir Karl Popper, science is an ‘open’ belief system. An open belief system is where every scientist’s theories are open to scrutiny, criticism and testing by others. For example everyone has access to scientific information and none is kept away from the public or other scientists. Popper believes that science is governed by the principle of falsificationism whereby scientists seek to falsify existing theories by deliberate experiments that might produce information which would contradict the current theories. In Popper’s views, the growth of our understanding of the world is based on the discarding of falsified claims. Scientific knowledge is built upon as new claims arise which would mean it’s cumulative. Science as a sustainable and sturdy belief system is questionable. Despite great achievements, it isn’t possible to take the current theories as unquestionably true. For example, for centuries it was believed the sun revolved around the earth however, Copernicus falsified this knowledge-claim.
You can use science as a ‘closed’ belief system to criticise Popper’s theory of science being an ‘open’ belief system. Thomas S. Kuhn claims that science is a self-sustaining belief system whereby mature sciences such as geology, biology and physics are based on a set of shared assumptions that he defines as Paradigm. Kuhn describes paradigm as depicting reality, what problems to study, what methods and equipment to use, what would count as evidence and even the answers. Kuhn says that that scientists engage in normal science and the paradigm lays down the broad outlines and the scientists’ job. The scientists who do most successfully within the scientific industry are reward with things like professorships and Nobel Prizes. Kuhn’s theory criticises Popper in that science doesn’t follow the norm of disinterestedness as the scientists experiments are in the intention of getting rewards.
Robert K. Merton’s C,U,D,O,S norms agrees with Popper’s theory but it also helps to justify why science has only grown so rapidly in the last few centuries. Merton argues that science can only thrive with support from other values. Merton argues that science needs a set of norms that make scientist act in ways that serve the goal of increasing scientific knowledge. The norms Merton presents are Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness and Organised Scepticism. Communism is the norm whereby scientific knowledge isn’t private property but must be shared with the community though the publishing of their findings. Publishing scientific findings makes it harder to practise fraud since it enabled others to check the claims. If knowledge isn’t shared then our understanding of the word would not grow. Universalism is where a knowledge-claim is judged by universal and objective criteria such as testing and not by a particular group. Disinterestedness means being committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake and not for rewards or recognition. The experiments must be for a common specific enterprise and not for personal gain. Finally, Organised Scepticism is that no knowledge-claim should be labelled as ‘sacred’ as every claim is ‘Universalised’ whereby it is open to questioning, criticism and objective investigation. These norms make science a perfect belief system; however these norms are all subject to criticisms.
You can criticise Communism as a norm by saying not all science is shared. For example, the patenting of medication within the pharmaceutical industry means that no other competitor is able to know how a specific drug was produced nor are they able to produce the same or cheaper-alternative. Universalism could be criticised by saying that the general public, most likely due to our lack of knowledge, are unable to criticise or judge a scientific-claim. Knowledge-claims are usually judged through objective criteria but the process is carried about by a biased scientist hoping to prove or disprove a claim. A criticism of disinterestedness would be that often, scientists have a purpose or an agenda behind their experiments. For example, when testing a scientist might be looking for the cure for Cancer, this would be their agenda. This would mean that along the way they may not notice or may disregard some important information because the scientist is only looking for one thing. Finally, you might criticise Organised Scepticism by saying not all scientific assumptions are not challenged. Some knowledge-claims may be surpassed due to our constant faith in science. We avoid challenging science through the idea that science is the logical explanation whereby no challenge is needed.
A sociological explanation of ideology as a belief system is the Marxist view. Marxist’s believe that the ruling class controls the means of production as well as controlling the ideas of that generation. Marxists also believe that society is split into two classes – the capitalists and the proletariats. The capitalists are the people who are the means of productions and the proletariats produce the profits. Marxist’s ‘ruling class ideology’ depicts that competition is good as this allows the people who work hard to get the top jobs. Coincidentally, the ‘poor people are dumb’ as society is meritocratic whereby everyone has equal chances but the poor just don’t make the most of their opportunities. Marxists also believe that competition is positive as it raises standards. If society is constantly competing to get the best jobs then their quality of life would increase. Moreover, they believe equality ‘goes against human nature’. This proves that it is innate for humans to want to achieve the best and more than their competitors. The final belief of Marxists is that the nationalist idea is that workers and capitalists of one nation have more in common than do the workers of the world. The sole rule of ideology as a belief system in the eyes of a Marxist is that is should prevent change by creating a false consciousness amongst the workers. The capitalist control over ideology is referred to as ‘hegemony’. Gramsci argues that the working class can develop ideas that challenge ruling-class hegemony. This is because in capitalist society, workers have a dual consciousness - a mixture of ruling-class ideology and ideas they develop from their own direct experience of exploitation and their struggles against it. Therefore is a dual consciousness is developed then it is possible to overthrow capitalism. Gramsci argues that in order to overthrow capitalism, a group of ‘organic intellectuals’ – workers who are against capitalism help to spread their ideologies through the working class. Criticisms of Gramsci’s theory are that it is not the existence of a dominant ideology that keeps the workers inline and overthrow capitalism. Other theories are put forward by Abercrombie et al that economic factors such as the fear of unemployment force workers from rebelling. Another explanation for ideology as a belief system is explained through Mannheim. He wrote his ideology between the two world wars (1918-39) – a time of intense political and social conflict which most certainly influenced his views. Mannheim’s study in 1929 concluded with that belief systems as a partial or one-sided worldview. Mannheim distinguishes between two broad types of ideology; Ideological thought and Utopian thought. Ideological thought which justifies society being kept the same which helps to maintain the status quo. Utopian thought justifies social chance and reflects the position and interests as the underprivileged. For example, the work class is oppressed by the status quo and consequently favour radical social change. Marxists further argue that the group of intellectuals must be disinterested and so to make sure they don’t mix the views of other groups. A problem surrounding this is that the organic intellectuals only produce partial views of reality and the world. Feminists also have an explanation for ideology as a belief system whereby Marks of 1979 describes how science is used to justify gender equality in society. Marks furthers this by saying ideology helps the maintain patriarchy. Science has been used to define women as inferior. Moreover, he depicts how science excludes females from education and it forces them to take the female role and be a housewife. Finally, in the 19th century, educating females was said would lead to a ‘puny, unfeminine female’. However, this feminist explanation of ideology as a belief system is deterministic. This is because not all elements of religious belief system are subordinate towards women. An example where women are not oppressed is the emergence of monotheistic patriarchal religions such as Christianity.