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Sociology

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社論擬答
03115224社二B魏子倫
「後現代」存在的爭論性主要在於「現代性」與「後現代性」是不是一個確切的分割,抑或是兩者之間具有連續性,以致「後現代性」是一個虛構的概念呢?回顧過去曾被稱為「現代性」的歷史斷代,三個世紀以來的啟蒙運動所帶來的科學、理性思想讓現代性得以醞釀、發酵出一個「公民社會」的可能,意味著從農奴到中產階級,並漸漸形成了城市的雛型,伴隨著資本主義的運作下人們漸漸對於「標準化」的社會產生質疑,現代性的零碎化使得「理性」似乎不復存在;「後現代」的觀點也應運而生了。 「後現代」認定的分歧點可以說是以馬克思主義傳統作為大致分界,絕大多數的馬克思主義傳統的社會理論家如哈維、哈伯瑪斯、伊格爾頓等,皆主張後現代只作為一個社會文化現象,認為其並不涉及於一個「基礎經濟結構」的變動,因而不得算是一種新的社會型態,換言之「理性」依然存在,如今之現象只能算是資本主義在全球的更深層滲透與「同質化」的過渡期罷了。 而對於贊成者以李歐塔、福科、德希達等,開始能夠提出具體理論去論述「後現代」,他們拒絕承認現有學科如科學、哲學、社會學和文學之間的界線,並試圖創造一種嶄新的超科學論述;諸如透過電腦、媒體等新知識及社會經濟制度的變化,正漸漸低產生了新的社會形勢,以資訊、知識、技術作為基礎,對理性提出質疑的同時轉而採取了尼采是的「視角主義」觀點,拒絕了終極真理的追求,放棄宏觀的統一主體,開始請項研究人與人的微觀政治與不確定性,深信人被語言割裂而失去了中心。 「在這其中,充滿了任意的內容,並掏空了一切本質性的東西。」透過尼采哲學所闡述的後現代,以李歐塔為例,其著作《後現代的狀況》以「知識」作為主要論述之一,他認為在知識構成體系的內部,所有不能被轉化成資訊輸送的事物終將被淘汰,一切都將轉化為電腦語言,而這又勢必開創了新的研究方向。其認為後現代的「知識不再以知識作為最高目的」,這也意味著不同於馬克思主義傳統;後現代的「知識是有生產力」的,並以此為理論基礎去敘述一種「知識作為商品化的生產者與消費者的交互關係」,藉此詮釋了馬克思之下層建築「經濟結構」所發生的「根本性的條件」變化,以此來論證電腦霸權所建構出的新社會型態。 而作為其思想論敵的哈伯瑪斯,則認為「現代性」是「一個尚未完成的方案」;那麼現代性的尚未完成又何談後現代呢?「後現代主義並不是現代主義的末期,而是現代主義的初始狀態,而這種狀態是川流不息的。」在哈維的著作《後現代的條件》將後現代視為「現代性的未竟之業」,也呼應了哈伯瑪斯認為後現代僅作為現代的一個組成部分,只是在資本主義積累的規律中,「時空壓縮」所產生的後果罷了。哈維認為李歐塔僅是將論點置於新的通信技術的語境之中,考察生產和傳播的各種新技術,以及作為生產首要力量的知識運用;而正因此產生資本主義交流語言的技術條件和社會條件改變的「後現代」錯覺罷了。哈維引用馬克思的著作說明:「All that is solid melts into air.」;solid指的是傳統價值、道德、信仰、及人與人的信任等,說明了生產力的不斷革新所造成的社會動盪將會是永遠的不安定和變動,哈維的代表性結論為:「在現代主義的廣泛歷史和被稱為後現代主義的運動之間,存在的是更多的連續性而非差別」,這也同樣是大多數「反後現代」意識形態的理論根源。 「內心種種激情的角逐,最後,有一種激情支配了理智。」再一次由尼采哲學做為起點來探討小燈泡案與台灣社會;「缺席的神」戴奧尼索斯的到來使尼采哲學提早一百年預言了現代社會的精神與文化危機,簡述其思考概念:「上帝已死」象徵性地說明了宗教之道德式解釋於現代社會中的「無力感」,「永劫回歸」的輪迴中呼應前者,在無上帝之最終價值仲裁之際;「人本」精神的概念與尼采所謂的人性並非來自於靈魂本身;於是,超越人性的「超人哲學」象徵著生命的昂首與「創造」,最終在創造中自我解放,便得以「超越善惡」。然而當人處在「被遺忘的峽谷」時正如同醉酒的戴奧尼索斯,最終當「個體化原則的崩潰」發生時,便會過度地跳脫了理性而「自我放逐」,殺害小燈泡的王嫌正是在逃離現代性之路的過程中,無法控制自身的「狂躁」;於此結合佛洛伊德對於狂躁症的論述:當人的「自我」與「超我」過度結合時,其狂熱且自我滿足的心境並不受自我批評所困擾;於此案中王嫌對於社會觀感以及殺害小燈泡的自責心裡早已因狂躁而全部取消,因而做出如此犯行後卻不知所云,而他始終只是沉溺於自我解放的享受中且無法控制罷了。由此案可看出台灣社會或許逐漸地朝向後現代社會發展,後現代思想的複雜性如同一朵帶刺的玫瑰,帶著一種「致命」的吸引力,謹在此期許台灣社會能痛定思痛,不再重蹈覆轍,並致力於改善後現代那「根本」的成因,也願逝去的生命安息。 4. 福柯所論述之性活動:又可解為「性快感」,在概念上福柯認為追尋性快感乃人類順應自然本性之行為,而不只是應對外在的社會化、內化的普遍原則。一以貫之即是「人作為慾望的主體,與權力對抗」。 這也意味著福柯的理論建立在慾望與邏各斯(理性)的動態平衡下,也正式進入其「精神三變」思考脈絡。先是「考古學」時期「區隔實踐」的概念,其要點在於透過瘋人院去揣摩醫病關係中,醫者透過「主體客體化」的過程以科學、語言行控制之實!如此使病人「緘默」,並令瘋癲能看見自己的「鏡像認識」進而使其陷入「無休止的審判」,這便是當知識與「權力」共謀時所產生的主體客體化模式。 而在「系譜學」時期;不同於馬克思,其在論述以科學方式理解的主體時不僅僅是生命、勞動的結構化規訓過程,他亦注重「語言」所衍生的規訓,福柯從尼采的思想中獲得啟發,這使得此時期與尼采的「權力意志」、「永劫回歸」密不可分,其重視之點在於「規訓」的意涵,例如在其書:《規訓與懲罰》中所渴望探討的是監獄如何以自己的規則去控制犯人的身體與說話的方式,福柯認為去探討其「在地的」、「從屬的知識」便是系譜學的批判任務!藉著邊沁的「全景敞視建築」;福柯以「全景敞視主義」揭露了隱藏在建築空間中的權力運作,為「監視社會」形成的主因。 「倫理學」時期則為其思想之核心,福柯起先由「生命權力」之運作去考察其中反抗與「自我治理」的可能,福柯最終將權力定義為「無所不在、又看不見的整體」,看似為權力擁抱了所有東西,但實則為「所有東西皆因權力而來」。而對於性,權力以兩種方式進行宰制,先是透過人口的生命政治使生活成為受控制的客體,同時也使「性」成為控制身體生活的工具;「生命權力」即作為人體與人口生命上的控制。 而相對於佛洛伊德,福柯認為權力與慾望之連結較奇想的更為複雜且原始;慾望作為「由下而上」自然湧出的能量,與其相對抗的便是試圖阻止它的更高秩序,因此慾望並不是受到壓抑的;其理由在於慾望存在之處,權力早已存在,因此在「力比多」論述中指責「性驅力與權力關係」對於慾望的壓抑本身就是個錯覺。而「權力」的思考也藉此貫穿了福柯的三階段理論,便是權力研究的不變與「精神三變」的內涵。 福柯進而提出「慾望主體」取代了古典的「理性主體」,其關鍵便是探討為何「性欲行為相關的快感與歡愉,是我們道德上的掛慮對象」?福柯以知識、權力、主體的三位一體的政治衍生出了「治理」的概念;衍生之「自我統治」便是為了獲得「自由」,福柯的自由應理解為「在施加於他人的權力中施加於我自身的權力」,便是對於「倫理主體」的探求,並認為一個能「自我治理」的人會「在對自我的控制與珍愛中為他人的自由留有餘地」;連結前述「性快感」與「邏各斯」所構成的「性活動」之力量,它指向了一種「快感享用」的反思,唯有「節制」才有更佳值得回味的快感,因此「道德」作為一種把握時機的藝術;也解答了最後一個疑問。

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...Intro to Sociology Chapter 1 https://www.inkling.com/read/seeing-sociology-joan-ferrante-1st/chapter-1/module-1-1 Sociology – Study of human activity in society. More specifically is it the study of the social forces that influence or pressure to behavior and thought, including the things people do with and to one another. The activities sociologists study are age-old and too many to name, but they can include people searching for work, securing food, seeking the attention of another, adorning the body, celebrating, changing residences, listening to songs, traveling, burying the dead, and so on. These activities may involve just one or two people or billions of people. Social forces – Anything human create that influence or pressure people to interact, behave respond or think in certain way. Study sociology to avoid conflict, predict behaviors. Sociology covers different areas (Family, education, migration, population, gender and etc) and aspects of life. Thus the sociological perspective offers useful work that can be applied to work related issue and tasks and career oriented skills. Sociology studies through a global perspective A global perspective assumes that the force of globalization touch virtually every aspect of our daily lives. Globalization – Ever increasing flow or good, services, money, people, technology, information, and other cultural items across national borders. Ultimately globalization is experiences locality. Glocalization – The process by...

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Sociology

...The concept of sociology had been recognized by independent philosophers since the dawn of organized civilization. Philosophers such as Confucius and Xenophanes in their works had hinted at the clash of cultures and social hierarchy. Later, in the 14th century, Arab scholars such as Al Jahiz and Ibn Khaldun's compliled books on the history of society itself. These works are known to be forerunners of sociology. In fact, books written by Ibn Khaldun on social cohesion and conflict were translated into Latin in the 15th century. However, Sociology as a discipline has only been around since the late 17th century. Sociology then was very much the product of a rapidly changing world, from the violent revolutions in France to the subtle urbanization of Europe over a period of hundred years. Each philosopher, depending on the time period he was born in, and his background, contributed to sociology in his own unique way.The term "sociologie" was first coined by a French essayist named Emmanuel in the 17th century. However, little is known about his other contributions towards the field. Among most notable of early sociologists was Auguste Compte. He largey thought of sociology as a positivist science. In fact he himself coined the term positive philosophy . In his works, he established three stages of attainment of knowledge, theological, metaphysical and positive. Many historians belief that his conclusions on positivism and sociology were a direct result of the bloody French Revolution...

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Sociology

...The first point that describes what is sociology is human behaviors. For example in the article it said “He will naturally be interested in the events that engage men’s ultimate beliefs, their movements of tragedy and grandeur and ecstasy. But he will also be fascinated by the commonplace, the everyday”. This demonstrates that sociologists care about what people do and why they do it and what they were thinking. For instance if a man killed someone a sociologist would wonder why did he do it and what was he thinking when he killed the other person. The second point that describes what sociology is human interaction. For example in the article it said “He will be interested in…the relations between people employed in restaurant or between a group of little girls playing with their dolls”. This shows that sociologists are interested in how people socialize with each other from children playing to adults having conversations. For instance if there was a group of girls at a park a sociologist would wonder what are they doing here and what are their relationships with each other. The third point that describes what sociology is history. For example in the article it said “The sociologist may be interested in many other things. But his consuming interest remains in the world of men, their institutions, their history, their passions. And since he is interested in men, nothing that men do can be altogether tedious for him”. This shows that sociologist care about how humans have changed...

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...Reflective Essay Introduction to Sociology Nicola McMenamin 730353x Word Count: 1579 40 % Dr. John McCormack October 21st 2012 Sociology "The art of life lies in taking pleasures as they pass, and the keenest pleasures are not intellectual, nor are they always moral", this quote was once said by a Greek secular artist, by reading this quote one can presume that most philosophers and thinkers alike look for a deeper meaning within their lives and throughout society. Previous to this course my viewpoint and attitude were based on the people of which I surround myself with, the life experiences I have encountered and the way in which we make our decisions and why. Following my studies I have found this foundation of my knowledge to be valid and rather accurate although there are numerous factors which make up our decisions and how we end up where we are, studying sociology has assisted me in becoming more aware of different factors which I may have not considered to make up a society and how in turn this has enhanced my sense of identity. In relation to individuality and where I am in society I have found there are a number of entities which define me within the social order, that being of where I have lived in the world, the people I surround myself with, the cultures I have endured and seen, the values I was taught as a child and to this day as an adult and the way...

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