...In book 2 of Plato's Republic, Glaucon challenges Socrates to explain why he believes it is better to be just than unjust. Using the analogy of Ring of Gyges, Glaucon Socrates to explain why anyone should still desire justice even if there are no further ends to be pursued such as good reputation and honour. Socrates then offers a conception of justice which goes beyond the definitions offered by his previous interlocuters earlier on in the Republic. This essay will first aim to discuss in detail the challenge set forth by Glaucon followed by an analysis of Socrates' conception of justice with reference to his city-soul analogy. Glaucon claims, on behalf of the average Athenian, that justice is purely a social construction, valued by the masses in view of obtaining a good reputation for justice and virtue(358a). He claims that goods are of three kinds: (1)Goods valued only for what they are and not for their consequences, (2)goods valued for what they are and for their consequences, and (3) goods valued only for their consequences(357b-d). After the two agree on justice belonging to the goods of type-2, Glaucon proceeds to give an explanation of the majority's conception of justice by giving an account of its origins: Before any laws came to be...
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...Plato we find various renditions of what specifically justice is. Socrates begins the conversation of justice with an elder statesman by the name of Cephalus and furthers the discussion with the son of Cephalus, Polemarchus. Socrates is seemingly “toying” with or having fun at the disposal of Polemarchus by challenging his argument and every point and he identifies various inconsistencies in the stories of both men regarding justice. By now the story turns to Thrasymachus which is where this paper begins. I will attempt to dissect Thrasymachus’ s argument and demonstrate where Socrates finds his argument lacking. During the course of book we hear various meanings from various characters regarding the true meaning of justice; Thrasymachus seems to take the view of a pessimist regarding the topic. Both Cephalus and Polemarchus are rather defeated in their arguments with Socrates and are unable to adequately provide Socrates with a satisfactory answer regarding what justice is. Thrasymachus enters the conversation and is seemingly annoyed or upset about the discourse between Socrates and Polemarchus. Moreover, Thrasymachus reverses the question to Socrates by demanding to know what his version of justice is. Thrasymachus seems to be frustrated with the audacity of Socrates of questioning everyone without providing and real answers himself. Thrasymachus then asserts his view of justice and in so doing, questions whether or not being a just...
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...the Apology and the Crito of Plato, one inevitably comes upon a seeming fundamental contradiction between the two dialogues. The Apology presents readers with a defiant Socrates who declares in his trial that, if acquitted on the condition that he never philosophize again, he would continue to practice philosophy in spite of the jury’s order to the contrary: . . . if you said to me in this regard: “Socrates, we do not believe Anytus now; we acquit you, but only on condition that you spend no more time on this investigation and do not practice philosophy, and if you are caught doing so you will die”; if, as I say, you were to acquit me on those terms, I would say to you: “Men of Athens, I am grateful and I am your friend, but I will obey the god rather than you, and as long as I draw breath and am able, I shall not cease to practice philosophy . . . (29c-d).1 The passage from the Apology seems to present a defiant argument for civil disobedience in the face of injustice. In the Crito, however, when given a chance to escape prison and his upcoming execution, Socrates reasons that such an action would be unjust because it would defy the laws 1Plato, Apology. Trans. G. M. A. Grabe (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2000), 32. Blanks 1  of the city. Near the end of the dialogue Plato presents Socrates as speaking for a hypothetical anthropomorphized “voice of the laws”: Is your wisdom such as not to realize that your country is to be honored more than your mother, your...
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...Socrates Philosopher Socrates was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, Wikipedia “Personal background” Born: 469 BC, Athens, Greece Died:399 BC, Athens, Greece Full name: Socrates Nationality: Greek Era: Ancient philosophy Region: Western philosophy School: Classical Greek Main interests: Epistemology, ethics Notable idea: SocraticMethod, Socratic irony Influenced: Most subsequent Western philosophy; more specifically, Plato, Aristotle, Aristippus, Antisthenes Spouse:Xanthippe Children:Menexenus, Lamprocles, Sophroniscus Aristotle Philosopher Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great “Personal background” Born: 384 BC Stagira, Chalcidice Died: 322 BC (aged 61 or 62) Euboea Nationality: Greek Era: Ancient philosophy Region: Western philosophy School: Peripatetic schoolAristotelianism Main interests: Physics, Metaphysics, Poetry, Theatre, Music, Rhetoric, Politics, Government, Ethics, Biology, and Zoology Notable ideas: Golden mean, Aristotelian logic, syllogism, hexis, homomorphism, Aristotle's theory of soul Plato Philosopher Plato was a philosopher in Classical Greece. He was also a mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western...
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...Just individuals : In his book ‘The Republic’, Plato searches for justice within the individual and what makes a person ‘just’. By comparing his sense of what is just at a political level and what is just at a psychological level he suggests three virtues of the individual which will make that particular person just. The virtues of wisdom, courage and moderation are common to both a just and the fictional just city of Kallipolis. This artificial city has the pre-determined virtue of being just – he does this in order to understand what justice is for the individual because Plato thinks that ‘a just man won’t differ at all from a just city in respect to the form of justice; rather he’ll be like the city.’ (Republic 435b) In the just city Plato creates three classes: the producers, the guardians and the rulers. Each of these three classes has a certain virtue it has to display to fulfill the ‘just city’ pre-requisite that Plato has placed upon Kallipolis. The rulers are required to exhibit wisdom so that ‘a whole city established according to nature would be wise because of the smallest class and part in it, namely the governing or ruling one. And to this class, belongs a share of the knowledge that alone among all the other kinds of knowledge is to be called wisdom.’ (428e-429a) The wisdom enjoyed by the rulers would be used to ensure that the city has ‘good judgement and [be] really wise.’ (428d) The guardians (soldiers) of Kallipolis would be educated in order to absorb...
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...Letter from a Birmingham Jail Analysis Ethos is author’s reputation, credentials and trustworthiness in an argument. King first establishes ethos in his letter through addressing the audience as "fellow clergymen." It lays out a warming and trustworthy tone that, despite his leadership, brings him onto familiar levels with the audience. In the second paragraph, King mentions “I have the honor of serving as president of Southern Christian Leadership conference". Through this, he has establishes his credibility to a greater extent. Through the first ten paragraphs King uses history to set up his credibility. He quotes Bible verses and stories, which reveals him as a knowledgeable man of God. King states “so I am compelled to carry the gospel of freedom beyond my own home town. Like Paul, I must constantly respond to Macedonian call for aid." While establishing his virtuous nature, he also demonstrates his wisdom. He does so by quoting from historical figures such as Socrates, Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson, and many other well-known leaders and reformers. He also shows a knowledge of the laws. His core argument focuses on the justice, which is a God given right that he and his people were not receiving. This idea is supported through the use of historical situations and court cases that are relevant to his argument. This allows the clergymen to understand better from where King’s argument grows. Pathos is a part of argument which touches the emotions of the reader. Martin...
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...Individualism is usually discussed against some other term like communitarianism or collectivism. The extreme version of collectivism is "mass mind" or some other expression like that. The extreme of individualism is "sociopathy". Clearly, one wouldn't want to be the extreme of either of these things. Moral individualism is not absolutely good or bad. The moral individualist can stand up against a community's horrible moral standards for example. The sub-categories of utilitarian individualism and expressive individualism are also not necessarily good or bad. A utilitarian individualist may invent a cure for a disease to make a profit or to save a loved one -- good still comes from it. An expressive individualist may give to charity in order to gain a public reputation as a philanthropist. In the context of our own society, a lot of people are concerned with the effects of moral individualism, utilitarian individualism, and expressive individualism -- concerned that these orientations are being lived at the expense of community interests to a point at which they are harmful to collective life. Your task is to be familiar with these terms and have some sense of where you stand with respect to them. Your advocacy in one direction or other is not my primary concern -- I want you to know the terms and have an attitude with respect to them. Foundation of Ethical Conduct Order – patterned trajectories and relationships that have continuity in time. The importance...
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...Rhetorical Analysis of "Letter from Birmingham Jail" “Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. We are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly” quoted by Martin Luther King Jr. He was an American Baptist minister, activist, humanitarian, and leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs. During the civil rights protests, he was arrested in Birmingham, Alabama because for protesting without a permit. Some realized arresting Dr. King is the best idea. However, Dr. King did not let jail block his...
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...Dr. Katherine Heenan English 472 Spring 2007 February 20, 2007 Aristotle’s Life and the Rhetoric Books I and II Aristotle (384-322 BCE) • Aristotle was a student of Plato’s who disagreed with his mentor over the place of public speaking in Athenian life • born in Macedonia about the time Plato was opening the Academy in Athens • age seven went to Athens and entered the Academy--stayed on as teacher; left 20 yrs later on Plato’s death in 347 • Was ineligible to inherit Academy because he wasn’t Athenian • believed only scientific demonstration and the analysis of formal logic could arrive at transcendent truth • Dialectic and rhetoric form 2 major divisions in his view of human inquiry but they deal with subjects on which true knowledge isn’t available • Rhetoric: making persuasion possible • for Aristotle, rhetoric as the discovery in each case of the available means of persuasion--this discovery requires scientific investigation o in terms of speech situations, he focused on civic affairs • forensic speaking considers guilt or innocence—judicial speech centering on accusation and defense • deliberative speaking considers future policy—political speech centering on future policy • epideictic speaking considers praise and blame—ceremonial speech ▪ Aristotle classified rhetoric as the counterpart of dialectic o dialectic is on-on-one conversation; rhetoric is one...
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...constructing and leading nonviolent protests. Within the first paragraphs of his letter to the eight white clergymen, King first uses the appeal to ethos strongly to captivate the minds and attention of his audience. In paragraph two of “The Letter from Birmingham Jail” beginning on page 800, King appeals to ethos to ensure credibility and authority when he writes that he is in Birmingham because he is the President of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. King goes further into explanation and also notifies that the partners of the organization consented to gather for nonviolent protests. King states that he had been invited because he had organizational ties to the city. Then King adds, “But more basically, I am in Birmingham because injustice is here.” After stating his reasoning for being in Alabama, Dr.King uses a metaphor in paragraph three to further illustrate his purpose by relating this incidence of the situation to the prophets and the apostle Paul from the Bible. He writes “I am compelled to carry the gospel of the freedom beyond my own home town. Like Paul, I must constantly respond to the Macedonian call for aid.” Here, King is using ethos to engage the attention of the clergymen to assure that he is a credible and respectable voice to be heard. He also expands on the fact that he wants the rest of the country’s population to be aware of the freedom for African Americans that he and his black brothers and sisters have yearned for so long, then he felt as if he himself...
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...happens. He manipulates variables whenever possible in order to observe what happens under controlled circumstances. He is able to discover and explain the laws of nature which lead them to formulate theories. A Philosopher does none of the above-mentioned activities. Instead he asks himself questions like: “what is the law of nature?” “What is a scientific theory?” He explains the role of deduction in science. Philosophy is unlike science, pure verbal, analytical, and reflective. Then how can a scientist be a philosopher? Discussion: * What is philosophy? * Remote from the usual human interest and quite beyond normal comprehension. * Extremely complex intellectual activity. * A form of Inquiry – a process of analysis, criticism, interpretation and speculation. (Singer – 1990) * The search for the ultimate, conducted by reason, in order to satisfy man’s curiosity about himself and the universe. * Why study philosophy? * Makes a man think – think about the basic foundations of: * His beliefs * Outlook in life * His knowledge * It is from our human needs and immediate concerns * What is philosophy of science? * Set forth principles more basic and comprehensive than the conclusions of individual sciences. * Proved a positive role in ordering ways of students conceive of science, both as process and product. * Serve as appropriate introduction to scientific method * What...
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...Mill are philosophers who addressed the issues of morality in terms of how moral customs are formed. Immanuel Kant presented one perspective in The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals that is founded on his belief that the worth of man is inherent in his skill to reason. John Stuart Mill holds another belief as presented in the book, Utilitarianism, which is seemingly conflicting with the thoughts of Kant. What is most unique about the ethics of morality is the idea of responsibilities to particular individuals. According to both Mill and Kant, moral obligations are not fundamentally particularistic because they are rooted in universal moral principles. Both philosophers have made great impacts in their niche areas in the field. An analysis of their theories may help develop a better understanding of them and their theories. Mill holds an empiricist theory while Kant holds a rationalist theory. Kant explains morality through forms that he believes are essential to free and sensible judgment. Mill’s utilitarian approach is a form of consequential theory because the rightness or wrongness of an act is determined by the outcomes. Kant’s ethics of duty is the foundation for his categorical imperative, which gives the basis for his universal duty based theory. Mill’s theory of utilitarianism is the main structure of consequentialism. John Stuart Mill, who made utilitarianism the subject of one of...
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...and how, law is obligatory? Why and how, law is promulgated by legitimate authority? What is promulgation? Why promulgate law? Who is legitimate authority? Why and how, law is of common observance? Why and how, law is of common benefit? ============================ Introduction to Law Series Part 2.1 - Evolution of the Concept of Law A.) Classical Greek Concept of Law ============================ Side Notes: - Literature is the reflection of reality. -Greek civilization is two things, politics and drama. -Greek drama is two things, tragedy and comedy -Alexander the Great's teacher is Aristotle. -Aristotle's school is the Lyceum. -Aristotle's teacher is Plato. -Plato's school is the Academy. -Plato's teacher is Socrates. -Socrates' teachers are the Sophists. -One of the sophists is Sophocles. -Sophocles is an ancient Greek tragedian (tragedy writer). *For our study, we will look at two of his tragedies, Oedipus the King and Antigone. ============================ Sopholes' Definition of Law Oedipus the King Antigone In the video, it said, "Doing what is right is more important than following the will of a king or a country." Before Sophocles, law is made by God, or simply extra-human. During Sophocles, it is shown the...
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...and how, law is obligatory? Why and how, law is promulgated by legitimate authority? What is promulgation? Why promulgate law? Who is legitimate authority? Why and how, law is of common observance? Why and how, law is of common benefit? ============================ Introduction to Law Series Part 2.1 - Evolution of the Concept of Law A.) Classical Greek Concept of Law ============================ Side Notes: - Literature is the reflection of reality. -Greek civilization is two things, politics and drama. -Greek drama is two things, tragedy and comedy -Alexander the Great's teacher is Aristotle. -Aristotle's school is the Lyceum. -Aristotle's teacher is Plato. -Plato's school is the Academy. -Plato's teacher is Socrates. -Socrates' teachers are the Sophists. -One of the sophists is Sophocles. -Sophocles is an ancient Greek tragedian (tragedy writer). *For our study, we will look at two of his tragedies, Oedipus the King and Antigone. ============================ Sopholes' Definition of Law Oedipus the King Antigone In the video, it said, "Doing what is right is more important than following the will of a king or a country." Before Sophocles, law is made by God, or simply extra-human. During Sophocles, it is shown the...
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... Title: Phaedo The Last Hours Of Socrates Author: Plato Translator: Benjamin Jowett Release Date: October 29, 2008 [EBook #1658] Last Updated: January 15, 2013 Language: English Character set encoding: ASCII *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHAEDO *** Produced by Sue Asscher, and David Widger PHAEDO By Plato Translated by Benjamin Jowett Contents INTRODUCTION.PHAEDO | INTRODUCTION. After an interval of some months or years, and at Phlius, a town of Peloponnesus, the tale of the last hours of Socrates is narrated to Echecrates and other Phliasians by Phaedo the 'beloved disciple.' The Dialogue necessarily takes the form of a narrative, because Socrates has to be described acting as well as speaking. The minutest particulars of the event are interesting to distant friends, and the narrator has an equal interest in them. During the voyage of the sacred ship to and from Delos, which has occupied thirty days, the execution of Socrates has been deferred. (Compare Xen. Mem.) The time has been passed by him in...
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