A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND GUIDE FOR
FUTURE RESEARCH ON APPLICANT ATTRACTION
JONATHAN C. ZIEGERT
Department Of Psychology
University Of Maryland
College Park, MD 20742
KAREN HOLCOMBE EHRHART1
San Diego State University
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important activities for the success of an organization is the attraction of high quality applicants (Rynes & Barber, 1990). While the importance of attraction to organizational functioning and effectiveness has long been noted, the theory and research on attraction has been surprisingly underdeveloped. The purpose of this paper is to attempt to fill this void and address the call for greater attention to the topic of individuals’ attraction to organizations by proposing a theoretical model based on three meta-theories of both how and why individuals are attracted to organizations. While we detail how past research fits into this model, we go beyond this existing work and suggest directions for future theory and research development by examining the boundary conditions of past research.
It is important to note that our approach examines why individuals are attracted to organizations from the applicant’s perspective. Indeed, the important role that the individual plays in the attraction process has been relatively neglected in prior reviews dealing with recruitment (see Barber, 1998 and Cable & Turban, 2001 for notable exceptions). To provide the widest coverage of the attraction construct, we define attraction broadly as having a positive affective attitude towards an organization, viewing it as a desirable entity, and wanting to engage in some relationship with it (Aiman-Smith, Bauer, & Cable, 2001). With this foundation and definition, we now turn to an examination of the theories underlying attraction.
THREE META-THEORIES UNDERLYING ATTRACTION RESEARCH
Research on applicant attraction has generally proceeded without a clearly articulated theoretical foundation. Indeed, the vast majority of attraction studies do not extensively refer to theory and primarily cite existing empirical research as a framework (see Judge & Cable, 1997;
Turban, 2001; Turban & Cable, 2003; and Turban & Greening, 1996 for exceptions).
Accordingly, in this section, we discuss a variety of theories that can either be explicitly or implicitly tied to attraction research, and we examine the commonalities, overlap, and complementary perspectives among them in order to develop three meta-theories that underlie attraction research. These meta-theories serve as the necessary foundation for our proposed theoretical framework illustrating how and why constructs and variables are related to attraction.
Cognitive Processing Meta-Theory
The first group of theories entails how information is processed to result in judgments of

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attraction. In general, these theories propose that in the presence of some uncertainty, individuals directly or indirectly rely on what is known in developing perceptions of attraction.
We refer to this common theme as the cognitive processing meta-theory.
The theory that deals with the least amount of information individuals could possess involves exposure to or familiarity with an organization. Zajonc (1968) demonstrated support for the exposure-attitude hypothesis in that repeated exposure to an object yielded increasing positive evaluations of it. This mere exposure effect has been applied to attraction by a few researchers who have found that familiarity with an organization was positively related to ratings of its attractiveness (e.g., Turban, 2001; Turban & Greening, 1996).
Signaling theory (e.g., Rynes, 1991; Spence, 1973) proposes that in the absence of complete information, applicants interpret the information they have about an organization as signals of organizational characteristics (Turban, 2001). Research has shown direct effects on attraction for a number of variables considered to be signals, including organizational characteristics or policies (Cable & Judge, 1994), recruiter characteristics or behavior (Turban,
Forret, & Hendrickson, 1998), and recruitment activities (Turban, Campion, & Eyring, 1995).
Finally, models of persuasion such as the Heuristic-Systematic model (Eagly & Chaiken,
1984, 1993) have implications for attraction. This model proposes that the type of cognitive processing depends on characteristics of the message being processed. Systematic processing is comprehensive and analytical involving the incorporation of a greater amount of information, whereas heuristic processing involves less cognitive effort and relies on more limited information. Dineen, Ash, and Noe (2002) provide an application of this theory to attraction.
Social Psychological Meta-Theory
The second meta-theory draws upon social psychology and involves attitudes and views of the self. It is seen in several theories which propose that self-concept variables influence responses to environmental variables. Attraction, according to this meta-theory, stems from attitudes or views of the self in conjunction with the environment.
According to Consistency theory (Korman, 1966, 1967), individuals with high selfesteem use cognitions about the self to guide choices preferring work that corresponds to their self-image. Thus, individuals with high self-esteem should be more attracted to organizations that fit their needs. Saks and Ashforth (1997) noted support for this theory as evidenced by a significant relationship between self-esteem and perceptions of person-job fit.
Behavioral Plasticity theory is based on similar reasoning as it proposes that individuals with low self-esteem are more susceptible to and reliant upon external factors such as social cues or environmental cues (Brockner, 1988). This theory was supported by Turban and Keon
(1993), who found that for individuals with low self-esteem, organizational characteristics explained more variance in attraction than for individuals with high self-esteem.
Another theory that considers the role of the self in behavior is Social Identity theory
(Tajfel & Turner, 1986), which proposes that the self-concept is influenced by the evaluation of the group(s) with whom an individual identifies. Thus, when an organization is viewed in a positive light, this reflects favorably on the individuals within it, who receive positive outcomes such as approval from others (Barber, 1998). Accordingly, research has shown that people are more likely to be attracted to organizations that have a positive reputation (Turban et al., 1995).
Social Learning theory (Bandura, 1977) has also been applied to attraction research, particularly with regard to the concept of self-efficacy. For instance, Cable and Judge (1994)

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proposed and found that people with high self-efficacy (who believe they are capable of high performance), were more attracted to jobs that reward their individual performance and skills.
Interactionist Fit Meta-Theory
The final meta-theory proposes that the interaction or fit between person characteristics and environment characteristics results in attraction. These environment characteristics can be studied at various levels of analysis (e.g., jobs, organizations), but the type of fit most relevant to the concept of attraction is person-organization (P-O) fit. Kristof (1996) defined P-O fit as the compatibility between people and organizations that occurs when there is (a) a similarity or match of some attribute, and/or (b) one entity provides what the other wants or needs.
One related theory is Expectancy (VIE) theory (Vroom, 1964). In the context of attraction, the expectancy component of the theory involves perceptions of the likelihood of being hired by a particular organization. This theory’s instrumentality and valence components, however, more clearly invoke the concept of fit, as they are associated with the idea that individuals are attracted to jobs or organizations that are likely to offer valued characteristics.
Other relevant theories are rooted in Interactional psychology, which proposes that behavior is a function of the interaction between person and situational characteristics (e.g.,
Terborg, 1981). Examples of attraction research guided by this perspective include work by
Judge and colleagues (e.g., Cable & Judge, 1996; Judge & Bretz, 1992; Judge & Cable, 1997).
Interactional psychology is the foundation for the Theory of Work Adjustment (Dawis &
Lofquist, 1984). According to the theory, individuals desire “correspondence” with their work environments, such that the individual and the work environment are congruent with each other.
The theory in this category that is the most frequently applied to attraction research is
Schneider’s (1987) Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) theory. Central to this theory is the idea that people are attracted to organizations based on the fit or match between their characteristics and those of the organization (Schneider et al., 1995). A number of studies have supported the attraction component of this theory by demonstrating that people are differentially attracted to jobs and/or organizations with certain characteristics that match their own (e.g., Cable & Judge,
1994; Cable & Judge, 1996; Dineen et al., 2002; Judge & Cable, 1997).
THEORETICAL MODEL OF ATTRACTION
In order to develop a theoretical model of attraction, it is necessary to build upon these underlying meta-theories and examine prior research to make sense of and classify relationships into meaningful theoretical categories. Accordingly, we propose a multilevel framework that relates the general predictors, outcomes, and moderating variables influencing attraction. We group predictors into four broad categories: job, organizational, and process characteristics, as well as individual differences, with the latter category as a moderator of the relationship between the other predictors and the outcomes. On the outcome side, the framework incorporates both fit and attraction, with subjective fit as an antecedent of attraction. In what follows, we first focus on the main effects of job, organization, and process characteristics on attraction. We next focus on how these characteristics interact with individual differences (e.g., personality, values) to predict fit and/or attraction.

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Main Effects of Predictors
We first present studies that have focused exclusively on the main effect relationships between the predictor variables and attraction.
Job characteristics. One basis for organizational attraction may be the characteristics of the job of interest. One rationale for this relationship involves the cognitive processing metatheory. As jobs exist within organizations, job characteristics may be seen as signals of organizational characteristics such as priorities and values. Individuals’ evaluations of job characteristics may therefore not only determine whether they are attracted to the job, but also to the organization. Several studies have provided empirical justification for the direct main effect of job characteristics on attraction (Aiman-Smith et al., 2001; Barber & Roehling, 1993).
Organizational characteristics. Our model also proposes a direct effect of organizational characteristics on attraction. This main effect relationship is grounded in the social psychological meta-theory. For instance, when an organization is viewed favorably in terms of its characteristics or reputation, this reflects positively on its members, and potential applicants should be attracted (Barber, 1998). The cognitive processing meta-theory also would predict that visible organizational characteristics may serve as signals of the organization’s values or other unseen characteristics. A number of studies have supported the link between organization characteristics and attraction (e.g., Barber, Wesson, Roberson, & Taylor, 1999; Turban &
Greening, 1996), reflecting the social psychological and cognitive processing meta-theories.
Process characteristics. The final main effect relationship in our model is the direct influence of process characteristics on attraction. Of particular relevance to this relationship is the cognitive processing meta-theory, as process characteristics experienced by applicants are an obvious and readily available source of information about the organization that can be used to form judgments of attraction. A major area of research pertaining to this link has focused on the role of the recruiter in individuals’ attraction (e.g., Turban, 2001; Turban et al., 1995).
Interactive Effects of Predictors
Another way that the predictor categories may influence attraction is through interactive effects. These relationships allow for the moderating role of individual differences in the relationship between the various predictors and the criterion of attraction. The interactionist fit meta-theory is evoked as individual differences are considered in conjunction with job, organization, and/or process characteristics to predict attraction. Many conceptualizations of attraction do not explicitly acknowledge the key role that fit plays; however, we consider the role of fit (both objective and subjective) to be a central link among the characteristics and variables in our theoretical model.
Job characteristics. Our model proposes that job characteristics will interact with individual differences to influence fit and attraction. As the interactionist-fit meta-theory indicates, the fit or congruence between the individual and job (e.g., work/family balance) characteristics determines attraction. This relationship could also invoke the social psychological meta-theory. For example, individuals with low self-efficacy may be less attracted to jobs that they perceive to be too challenging or unattainable. Several empirical studies provide support for this link, including Cable and Judge’s (1994) study of pay preferences and
Honeycutt and Rosen’s (1997) research on work/family balance.
Organizational characteristics. Our model also proposes that organizational

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characteristics and individual differences interact in influencing fit and attraction. Again, this clearly evokes the interactionist fit meta-theory. In addition, the social psychological metatheory would suggest that views of the self (e.g., self-esteem, self-efficacy), in conjunction with organizational characteristics, are important considerations in determining attraction. Finally, the cognitive processing meta-theory suggests that known or visible organizational characteristics should contribute to attraction by serving as signals of other organizational attributes. Interactive effects have been shown for organizational characteristics such as size
(Turban & Keon, 1993) and culture (e.g., Judge & Cable, 1997).
Process characteristics. Finally, process characteristics are proposed to interact with individual differences in predicting attraction. Similar to above, this relationship is clearly grounded in the interactionist fit and social psychological meta-theories. The cognitive processing meta-theory is also involved as applicants develop attraction perceptions by using their experiences with process characteristics as signals of less visible organizational characteristics. Examples of interactive effects have been illustrated in prior work on EEO or affirmative action policies (e.g., Barber & Roehling, 1993; Turban & Dougherty, 1992)
Conclusion
We have proposed a summary theoretical model, which includes an organization and categorization of prior variables studied as well as how all of these general categories are related through both main and interactive effects. We recommend this framework as a guide to future research; in it we have unified a fragmented literature and pointed out the “big picture” theoretical connections among variables that are sometimes examined in isolation from each other. Keeping the entire framework in mind should encourage researchers to draw new empirical connections among variables that are theoretically connected by the meta-theories.
BUILDING UPON EXISTING RESEARCH: ADDRESSING BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
In order to advance the understanding of applicant attraction, there are multiple ways in which research should be extended. The purpose of the following section is to identify several boundary conditions of prior work on applicant attraction including the sample and context, fit, and the environment, in order to stimulate future research.
The first boundary condition concerns the characteristics of the samples, which consist nearly entirely of undergraduate or MBA students approaching graduation who are either currently searching for a job or soon plan to engage in the recruiting process. The use of nonstudent samples could provide for a better incorporation and grounding in the social psychological meta-theory if the level of these individuals’ self-esteem or self-efficacy differed from traditional samples. Such research would also better incorporate the interactionist fit metatheory to the extent that it could account for or measure a broader array of individual differences.
Another contextual boundary condition concerns the medium used to describe organizational and job characteristics in laboratory studies. Research has generally failed to incorporate a widespread technique used by over 90% of large organizations as well as numerous applicants: web-based recruitment (Dineen et al., 2002). Based on signaling theory, an organization’s presence on the web may serve as a signal of other organizational attributes (e.g., a technologically advanced organization and workforce). Future research should address this issue

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due to its increasing popularity and theoretical groundings in the cognitive processing metatheory.
Another salient boundary condition concerns the concept of fit, which has received insufficient attention in research on attraction. Several studies have demonstrated that the relationship between objective fit and attraction is mediated by subjective fit (e.g., Cable &
Judge, 1996; Dineen et al., 2002; Judge & Cable, 1997). Nevertheless, the majority of the research concerning fit concentrates on objective fit and does not consider the views or assessments of the individual. Consistent with the cognitive processing meta-theory, individuals may place different amounts of weight on their fit with various job, organization, or process characteristics (e.g., pay, location) in determining their overall judgment of attraction. Thus, these different potential combinations of subjective fit perceptions are a necessary area for future research. Also, little research has examined antecedents of individuals’ subjective perceptions of fit (outside of objective fit). Only Dineen et al. (2002) have specifically examined a factor other than objective fit as related to subjective fit perceptions in their illustration of the importance of fit feedback (the degree to which individuals were told that they fit with a company). This type of research is grounded in the cognitive processing meta-theory as it involves providing information to individuals and how this information is reflected in judgments of attraction.
The final boundary condition facing attraction research that we identify is the lack of attention to the external environment. Environmental factors have the potential to impact both the organization as well as the applicants in the attraction process. For example, the labor market may influence the degree to which companies can offer certain job characteristics (e.g., pay, benefits) as well as the number of vacancies available. Similarly, environmental conditions impact individuals’ available job options, their intensity of job search, and their perceptions of job options (Schwab, Rynes, & Aldag, 1987). Consistent with the social psychological metatheory, self-efficacy may be important such that individuals who perceive their ability to get jobs to be low may believe fewer options are available to them and therefore place less weight on attraction since they believe they have few choices (Eden & Aviram, 1993; Gore & Leuwerke,
2000).
CONCLUSION
We have provided an organizing theoretical framework which we hope will stimulate future theory development and research efforts on attraction, particularly in light of the metatheories and boundary conditions presented here. Our framework and the underlying metatheories have implications throughout the job search and employment process, and we encourage research attention to these issues as well. By taking into account these theoretical perspectives, researchers will greatly advance the understanding of why individuals are attracted to organizations. 1. As both authors contributed equally to the manuscript, order of authorship was determined randomly. REFERENCES AVAILABLE FROM THE AUTHORS

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