TARGETED SELECTION
FOREWARD
Accurate employee selection decisions have never been more vital to organizational success. Advances in technology and changes in organizational structure and responsibilities have increased the demand for high-quality job applicants who, if hired, will grow into productive contributors to organizational success. This demand, when combined with a competitive job market and significant legal compliance requirements, means that hiring processes and decisions are increasingly complex and challenging. Development Dimensions International, Inc. (DDI), offers a proven selection system called Targeted Selection® that, when properly applied, can produce positive results in a wide range of areas of concern to organizations, from turnover to on-the-job success and return on investment. Targeted Selection® incorporates the following concepts with the training necessary to apply them:
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A BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO IMPROVED HIRING DECISIONS (BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODOLOGY)
Organize selection elements into a comprehensive system. Apply effective interviewing skills and techniques. Use data integration to make the best hiring decision. Make a positive impression on applicants; sell them on the job and the organization.
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On the following pages are 21 common selection problems that DDI consultants have collected from observing more than 1,000 selection interviews. These observations, supported by published research studies (see References, page 19), have led to a better understanding of how interviews work and how different aspects of the interview affect decision making. In addition to reviewing these problems, this monograph will discuss how applying Targeted Selection® can address common selection problems and improve the quality of selection decisions.
Focus on job-related behavior. Use past behavior to predict future behavior. Assess both job fit and organization fit motivation.
the same job-related competencies. These mandates cannot be met if various interviewers are seeking information from applicants on different competencies. Even when competencies are clearly defined and documented, research has shown that experienced interviewers become complacent, asking the same questions or focusing on a few competencies that are easy to evaluate. The resulting lack of complete coverage of skills and abilities in the interview process limits an interviewer’s understanding of an applicant’s potential for success in the job.
1. Interviewers fail to seek complete and consistent information from applicants on the specific competencies* needed for success in the job.
(IN)COMPLETE COVERAGE OF SKILLS AND ABILITIES IN THE INTERVIEW PROCESS LIMITS AN INTERVIEWER’S UNDERSTANDING OF AN APPLICANT’S POTENTIAL FOR SUCCESS IN THE JOB.
When asked to identify the skills and requirements of successful job performance, managers who were selecting individuals for the same position in an organization provided conflicting and inconsistent responses. Although some discrepancy in responses can be attributed to semantics, even when common definitions are established, the lists of their target competencies varied,both in what is sought and the competencies’ perceived importance. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) mandates that selection processes be based on specific, accurately defined, and well-documented essential job requirements (competencies). EEOC mandates stipulate that these competencies are to be communicated so that everyone involved in the selection process shares a common understanding of their definition and intent. The EEOC also states that the selection process must be applied consistently and that all applicants for the same job be evaluated against
2. There is excessive overlap in competency coverage.
Several interviewers asking similar questions of an applicant leads to redundant competency coverage. Such overlap means that the interviewers share the same limited information when evaluating an applicant. Although some overlap of competency coverage is desirable as a check on the reliability of the information and to ensure full coverage of the most critical competencies, excessive overlap means that data is not being obtained for all competencies. Failure to consider all data results in a selection process that is neither fair nor effective.
* COMPETENCY OR DIMENSION? The use of the terms “dimension” and “competency” when referring to clusters or groupings of job-relevant behaviors, motivation, or knowledge has reflected changing preferences over time. The introduction of DDI’s Targeted Selection® program coincided with the popularization of the term “dimension.” For that reason, you will find “dimension” used throughout Targeted Selection®. In recent years, however, “competency” has gained more general acceptance. That preference is reflected in this monograph, which consistently uses the terms “competency” instead of “dimension.”
by making assumptions based on personal perspective. In addition, interviewers who project their own attitudes, motives, and feelings often fail to follow up on the details of the applicant’s behavior, assuming information that is not given. For example, an interviewer might assume that an applicant who reports receiving excellent grades in college is highly motivated. This interviewer is not inclined to ask additional questions; if he or she had, the applicant’s responses might reveal that the good marks resulted from an easy course of study.
Several practices can cause an interviewer to misinterpret applicant information.
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Playing amateur psychiatrist. An interviewer who tries to determine an applicant’s underlying personality traits or innate talents to establish job motivation is playing amateur psychiatrist. So too is an interviewer who asks applicants to describe themselves in a sentence or to name three strengths or weaknesses. Because most hiring managers are not trained in this approach, they can easily misinterpret applicants’ responses. Asking theoretical questions. The best predictor of future performance is past performance. However, many interviewers ask what the applicant would or should do instead of asking what the applicant actually did. Relying on theoretical information leaves applicants’ responses open to interpretation, which can create a false impression of their abilities. This approach also puts the interviewer in the position of being persuaded by an applicant’s ability to sell himself or herself. Projecting personal attitudes, motives, and feelings onto an applicant. Consider an interviewer who is highly motivated and achievement oriented. If this interviewer looks for similar characteristics in an applicant, he or she may misinterpret applicant responses
4. Interviewers ignore job fit motivation.
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Many interviewers focus only on an applicant’s skills, asking whether the applicant can do the job but not asking about the applicant’s motivation to want to do the job. A capable person might not be motivated to do a job if that job does not result in personal satisfaction. Job fit motivation is important in all jobs, whether in basic skill-level jobs or in highly skilled professional jobs. For example, consider a person with an engineering degree who has applied for an engineering job. It is possible that the person’s job motivation has changed since earning the degree or that the degree was an intermediate step toward another employment goal. Although the person has the credentials and ability to be an engineer, he or she might not be satisfied (motivated) in the job.
INTERVIEWERS OFTEN ARE UNAWARE OF THEIR PREJUDICES AND HOW THEY AFFECT PERSONNEL DECISIONS, BUT BIASES OR STEREOTYPES DO NOT REPRESENT JOB-RELATED FACTORS.
Or consider the promotion of an excellent salesperson to sales manager. Different aspects of selling might have excited and motivated the person to excel in sales (e.g., meeting new people, persuading difficult customers, making successful closes). However, there may be aspects of the sales manager job that the salesperson does not find motivating (e.g., limited direct customer contact, the need to coach and develop others), so performance in that job lags. Failure to gauge job fit (matches between what is available in the job and what the applicant likes and dislikes) is closely related to poor job performance and turnover. People who are not motivated to do a job most likely will not be productive employees.
6. Interviewers’ judgments are affected by biases and stereotypes.
An interviewer’s biases can reflect negatively or positively on applicants for reasons that have no relationship to the job responsibilities. For example, an interviewer might be biased against an applicant whose shoes are not polished or who has an unusual hairstyle. An interviewer might be biased for an applicant who belongs to certain college groups or who shares common interests with the interviewer. In addition, classifying an applicant into a stereotype such as “typical engineer” or “college dropout” might bias an interviewer’s evaluation of the person. Interviewers often are unaware of their prejudices and how they affect personnel decisions, but biases or stereotypes do not represent job-related factors.
5. Interviewers ignore organization fit motivation.
Organization fit is defined as an individual’s compatibility with an organization’s values and mode of operation. It’s important to uncover matches and discrepancies between what the organization offers and what the applicant likes and dislikes to make the most informed prediction of how well an applicant will “fit in” with the organization. As with job fit, failure to gauge applicants’ organization fit is closely related to poor job performance and turnover. People who do not find personal satisfaction with the organization’s values and mode of operation probably will not be productive or eventually will seek employment with a more compatible organization.
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7. Interviewers permit one competency to influence their evaluation of other competencies.
The “halo effect” means one outstanding accomplishment creates an impression of success that, in the interviewer’s eyes, can obscure less successful
behavioral examples in other equally important competencies. The halo effect also can have the opposite impact, making an applicant’s weakness in one competency obscure important strengths in others. The competency Oral Communication is prone to the halo effect. Interviewers often mistake skill in speaking for effectiveness in other areas. On the other hand, an interviewer might form a negative overall opinion about an applicant who has strengths in other job-related areas but whose oral communication skills are mediocre or poor.
9. Interviewers make quick decisions about applicants.
Many interviewers make a quick decision about an applicant based on initial impressions or information (e.g., information in the person’s application or resume, the person’s attire, or even a handshake). Whatever the basis for such decisions, the interview’s accuracy is diminished because the interviewer’s objectivity is clouded by this first-impression reaction. Studies have shown that after making a decision, individuals tend to seek more information to confirm the decision and to reject information that contradicts the decision. In many cases an interviewer will stop gathering information after making a quick decision about an applicant. Interviewers who make decisions before gathering all the facts will not have the information they need to evaluate an applicant fairly and accurately.
8. Interviewers allow applicants to control the interview.
Poorly managed interviews—for example, interviewers who let applicants talk at length about information unrelated to the job—do a disservice to the interviewer and the applicant. Similarly, interviewers who ask applicants,“Tell me about yourself,” will not get much behavioral information that is related to the job’s target competencies. Interviewers who fail to keep the discussion focused and to manage the amount of detail an applicant provides leave it to chance that the interview will yield critical job-related information.
cies, hiring managers find that interviewing alone does not provide them with the depth of information they need to make accurate hiring decisions.
10. Interviewers focus on negative information about applicants.
WITHOUT A CONSISTENT PROCESS WITH WELLDEFINED DECISION POINTS, THERE IS NO WAY TO ENSURE THAT ALL APPLICANTS REACHING A PARTICULAR STAGE IN THE SYSTEM ARE TREATED THE SAME WAY.
Many interviewers focus on obtaining negative examples of behavior and fail to seek positive behavioral examples because they believe that they have more to lose by hiring an unqualified applicant than by rejecting one who is qualified. This approach does not result in a balanced picture of the applicant’s past behavior and diminishes the interviewer’s ability to differentiate between an average applicant and a potentially outstanding one.
12. Selection elements are not organized into a system.
A selection system that is not well organized might not be applied uniformly to all applicants within a job category. Without a consistent process with well-defined decision points, there is no way to ensure that all applicants reaching a particular stage in the system are treated the same way, thus exposing the organization to possible legal challenges. In addition, valuable resources are wasted in an unorganized system. For example, if important screening elements such as résumé and phone screenings and on-campus interviews are not well-defined and implemented at the right stage, time, money, and effort are wasted conducting in-depth interviews with applicants who could have been screened out earlier in the process.
11. Hiring managers rely too heavily on interviews.
Interviewers have difficulty obtaining sufficient examples of past behavior from recent college graduates who have little or no work experience or from people who are changing careers and have little experience in the specific work area for which they are being interviewed. Because these applicants do not have enough experience in the job’s competen-
qualified applicants. Hiring managers who make decisions based on the relative quality of an applicant instead of the actual criteria required to do the job run the risk of taking the best of a bad lot rather than continuing the search for a truly qualified applicant.
13. Judgment is affected by pressure to fill the position.
The pressure to fill an open position can come from a variety of sources: how long the position has been open, the degree to which business or resources are affected by the open position, or the level of attention paid to the vacancy by senior management. Research indicates that hiring managers lower their selection standards when they are under pressure to fill positions. They may rationalize negative information about applicants and overemphasize the impact that training might have without taking into consideration that some competencies are less easy to learn than others or that training may not have been available.
15. Interviewers take insufficient notes during the interview.
Many interviewers rely on their memory, taking few or no notes during an interview. Some interviewers don’t even try to recap after an interview. Without thorough notes to refer to, an interviewer is left with only his or her impression of or feeling about an applicant. Studies indicate that, without notes, one can recall little more than one-fourth of the facts discussed immediately after an interview concludes. Such limited retention can lead to decisions that are based on feelings, not facts. Interviewers who lack good notes do not have the facts and information they need to justify competency evaluations and make accurate hiring decisions. In such situations the interviewer is apt to cluster ratings around the middle of the rating scale, indicating that an applicant is “OK, not very good or very bad.” Also, failure to take notes gives an advantage to the first and last applicants because they are better remembered.
14. Decisions are affected by the relative quality of other applicants.
After an entire day of interviewing unacceptable applicants, an average applicant makes a much more favorable impression on an interviewer than he or she might if compared to a field of more
are not fairly evaluated, gaps in information and relationships between pieces of information are not uncovered, and biases and stereotypes are allowed to influence decisions.
16. Interviewers use different rating and evaluation standards.
INTERVIEWERS’ DISCUSSIONS ABOUT APPLICANT DATA OFTEN ARE HAPHAZARD OR, WORSE, SUBJECTIVE.
Some interviewers give high ratings only to applicants whom they consider to be perfect. Some interviewers never give low ratings. Inconsistent standards lead to inaccurate assessments of applicants and poor hiring decisions. Interviewers should be trained to use a consistently applied standard. Skill practicing with feedback is a key element to making this training successful.
18. Interviewers don’t put their best effort into interviews.
Over time, even well-trained and motivated interviewers might slip into easier, less-demanding interview styles—simply going through the motions rather than conducting an effective, in-depth interview. Quality hiring decisions depend on interviewers’ maintaining the standards of effective interviewing—taking the time to prepare for the interview and asking enough planned behavioral questions to discover the maximum job-related information from each applicant.
17. Applicant information is not discussed systematically.
Interviewers’ discussions about applicant data often are haphazard or, worse, subjective (e.g., the applicant “looked like a nice person,”“didn’t seem very motivated,”“is not our kind of person”). When competency evaluations are not discussed systematically and justified with solid behavioral examples,applicants
negative reaction to the interview process and the organization, such as:
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Applicants’ waiting for long periods before or between interviews. Poorly structured or redundant interviews. Interviewers who take phone calls or allow other interruptions during the interview. Interview questions or treatment that leaves applicants angry or let down or feeling that they were not treated fairly. Interviewers who don’t give applicants a chance to respond completely.
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19. Interviewers’ skills diminish over time.
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An interviewer who receives feedback on his or her effectiveness is better able to maintain or improve his or her interviewing skills. Because opportunities for feedback are rare in most organizations, it can be difficult for interviewers to know whether they are conducting effective interviews and pursuing important facts. Many organizations overlook the benefits of refresher training as a way to ensure that interviewers are doing the best possible job and improving or maintaining their skills.
This kind of treatment can suggest to the job applicant that the organization has a negative, inconsiderate atmosphere. Under these circumstances, if a job offer is made, an applicant might very well reject it.
21. Applicants aren’t sold on the advantages of the job, organization, or job location.
20. Applicants react negatively to the interviewing process.
A high percentage of applicants withdrawing from the selection process or rejecting job offers might signal that the interviewing process is creating a negative impression. A thorough interview process takes into consideration how applicants are treated before, during, and after the interviews. If that element is missing from the process, situations can arise that will foster a
An interview is an information-gathering process for the interviewer. It also gives applicants an opportunity to obtain information about the position and the organization. Interviewers should be able to share stories or experiences that will sell specific features of the job, organization, or location to applicants. Applicants are not impressed with vague statements such as,“The organization encourages creativity” or “The organization takes care of its people.” Applicants also will react negatively if several interviewers repeat the same facts about the job, organization, or location but do not answer their questions.
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HOW TARGETED SELECTION OVERCOMES COMMON SELECTION PROBLEMS
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Targeted Selection® incorporates the following seven components (or concepts) with the training necessary to apply them. 1. Focus on job-related behavior. 2. Use past behavior to predict future behavior. 3. Assess both job fit and organization fit motivation. 4. Organize selection elements into a comprehensive system. 5. Apply effective interviewing skills and techniques. 6. Use data integration to make the best hiring decision. 7. Make a positive impression on applicants; sell them on the job and the organization.
JOB-RELATEDNESS IS KEY TO FAIR AND ACCURATE SELECTION DECISIONS AND TO COMPLYING WITH EQUAL EMPLOYMENT REGULATIONS WORLDWIDE.
Development Dimensions International’s Targeted Selection® program helps organizations overcome or minimize the common selection problems outlined on the previous pages. In addition, it can be tailored to meet the needs of various jobs, organization levels, and types of applicants. When properly applied, Targeted Selection® can produce positive bottom-line results including a decrease in turnover, a greater probability of job success for people hired using the program, and an increase in return on investment. (See discussion of validity research below.)
Research into the use and validity of the Targeted Selection® program has yielded the following findings:
> Targeted Selection® results in an average 50 percent
COMPONENT 1: FOCUS ON JOB-RELATED BEHAVIOR.
Focusing on job-related behavior in an interview is a core tenet of Targeted Selection®. Common selection problems (including failing to seek competency-related information and excessive overlap in competency coverage) are addressed if interviewers focus every selection system element, including the interviews, on job-related behavior as defined in the target competencies. Managers using the Targeted Selection® system know what competencies to target for a position and how to obtain information on each competency. Because each interviewer covers a subset of job-related competencies, all competencies are covered at least once and the most important competencies several times. Job-relatedness is key to fair and accurate selection decisions and to complying with equal employment regulations worldwide. The Targeted Selection® system:
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increase in job/offer acceptance ratios.
> Targeted Selection® clients consistently have reduced
turnover by up to 48 percent.
> More than 75 percent of hires selected through DDI’s
systems are considered to be above-average performers.
> Targeted Selection® ’s average return-on-investment
is $316,000. Some clients have reported an ROI of more than $2 million.
> Managers have reported that using Targeted Selection®
more than doubles their confidence in finding the right hires.
> Clients who use Targeted Selection® to fill customer
representative positions consistently report a 22 percent increase in customer satisfaction scores.
Uses a process called “work analysis.” This systematic analysis of how a job is performed identifies the competencies required for success in a job. These critical job requirements are the focus of every selection system element, including interviews. Targeted Selection® administrators are trained in how to conduct work analyses.
Teaches interviewers about competencies, the importance of the competency information for which they are interviewing, and how that information can reflect on-the-job performance. Provides learning and practice of interviewing skills and techniques to identify and assess competencies. Uses structured interview guides with planned behavioral questions that elicit behavioral examples for each target competency. A guide’s notetaking spaces help interviewers seek, obtain, and record job-related behaviors. Generally uses multiple interviews so that all competencies are covered at least once and the most important competencies are covered several times. (Although multiple interviewers represent the best approach for many jobs, one or two interviews will suffice for some jobs, such as entry-level service representative positions.) Uses a sound process for effective decision making during data integration, the step in which all the interviewers discuss and integrate the data about all applicants before making a hiring decision.
COMPONENT 3: ASSESS BOTH JOB FIT AND ORGANIZATION FIT MOTIVATION.
Targeted Selection® interviewers learn how to focus on specific competencies that indicate whether an applicant can do the job. They also learn how to assess an applicant’s motivational fit for the job and the organization. This knowledge allows interviewers to identify key indicators of turnover and predict, with a great degree of certainty, whether a person will (1) be satisfied in the job and (2) stay with the organization over time. In Targeted Selection®, motivation is not evaluated in the abstract. A work analysis identifies characteristics (i.e., facets) of the job and organization that are both most present and most absent. Targeted Selection® job fit/organization fit interview questions are designed to explore an applicant’s likes and dislikes related to these facets. For example, if the target job requires great attention to detail, an applicant might be asked,“Tell me about a job you had that required high attention to detail. How satisfied/dissatisfied were you with that, and why?” After an interviewer understands an applicant’s stated likes and dislikes, the interviewer can use mismatches to predict job fit. When the applicant is someone the organization wants to hire, the interviewer can use the matches to better sell the job, organization, or location to the applicant. Doing so addresses the problem of losing a top applicant because he or she hasn’t been sold on the advantages of the job, organization, or location. DDI’s Motivational Fit Questionnaire can be used to analyze an applicant’s likes and dislikes as they relate to the job or organization. A computerized analysis of the questionnaire responses highlights matches and discrepancies between the person’s likes and dislikes and what the job and organization offer. The analysis also provides relevant questions that can be used in follow-up interviews.
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COMPONENT 2: USE PAST BEHAVIOR TO PREDICT FUTURE BEHAVIOR.
When combined with a focus on critical job requirements, Targeted Selection®’s use of past behavior to predict future behavior solves many of the problems commonly associated with other selection techniques, such as the failure to seek specific job-related data and misinterpreting applicant data. Targeted Selection® interviewers learn to gather complete examples of past behavior that are directly related to the job’s target competencies. If a job requires someone who can solve problems, it is important that interviewers look for a person with a history of success in troubleshooting. Research has shown that behavior-based interviewing is a strong and accurate predictor of success on the job.
COMPONENT 4: ORGANIZE SELECTION ELEMENTS INTO A COMPREHENSIVE SYSTEM.
In a comprehensive selection system:
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Tests and simulations are used to screen applicants and supplement information obtained from the interviews.
The selection elements are ordered sequentially. The system is applied uniformly to all applicants within a job category. Decision points are established, ensuring that all applicants reaching a particular stage in the system are treated the same.
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A well-organized selection system provides an efficient process that saves time and money and conforms to EEOC requirements. Targeted Selection® administrators learn how to design a thorough, organized selection system for any job or job level.
FIGURE 1: Selection System for Sales Representative
Advertising, Employment Agency
• Resume Screen and Qualification Check • Tests and Simulations
Reject Letter 1
Hiring Interviews
Competencies Interviewer 1* Interviewer 2 Hiring DSM Personnel Mgr. (expert) X X X X X X X X X X X Interviewer 3 RSM X X X X X X X X X
Reject Letter 2
A WELL-ORGANIZED SELECTION SYSTEM PROVIDES AN EFFICIENT PROCESS THAT SAVES TIME AND MONEY AND CONFORMS TO EEOC REQUIREMENTS.
Continuous Learning Work Standards Communication Building Strategic Working Relationships Sales Ability Building Customer Loyalty Decision Making Planning and Organizing Tech/Prof Knowledge Motivational Fit
* Expert also asks questions about technical and professional knowledge.
Three Managers Who Conducted Interviews Meet
Reject Letter 3
Decision to Hire Pending Reference and Medical Check
The appropriate sequence for some selection elements, such as screening interviews, is relatively straightforward, while the position of others, such as reference checks, is debatable. Figure 1 on page 12 illustrates a typical selection system for a sales position that incorporates screening interviews and reference checks as well as a behavior-based simulation that is administered by one interviewer. (See pages 15–17 for more information on behavior-based simulations and tests.)
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Because applicants don’t always provide complete behavioral examples, no matter how well a question is worded, Targeted Selection® interviewers learn how to ask follow-up questions to generate more specific information. Follow-up questioning helps to eliminate the problem of interviewers’ making decisions about an applicant too quickly. Interviewers also use follow-up questions to obtain additional examples of behavior. It’s not uncommon for applicants to dislike some aspects of a job, organization, or location. However, if there are real opportunities for satisfaction and fulfillment to counterbalance what the applicant doesn’t like, then that person, once hired, likely will be productive and satisfied. Targeted Selection® interviewers learn how to determine the reasons behind a person’s likes and dislikes (that is, what motivates him or her to perform effectively). This information helps interviewers understand the degree of an applicant’s satisfaction or dissatisfaction with key aspects of the job, organization, or location that might affect the person’s determination to stay with the organization over time. Each Targeted Selection® interview guide includes structured, multipart note-taking space. The various segments allow the interviewer to note the key elements of a behavioral example: the Situation or Task the applicant faced, the Action he or she took, and the Results of that action. These “STARs” provide the interviewer with a fact-based record of job-related data that aids the interviewer in making accurate hiring decisions.
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COMPONENT 5: APPLY EFFECTIVE INTERVIEWING SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES.
The goal of Targeted Selection® training is to give interviewers the skills they need to ensure that they gather complete and specific data from applicants, thus addressing many of the problems commonly found in selection systems.
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Targeted Selection® interviews use behavioral, nontheoretical questions. When applicants are asked theoretical questions (“What would you do...,”“What should be done...,”“What are you going to do about...”), their answers can be easily misinterpreted. Behavioral questions, on the other hand, prompt answers that describe specifically what the applicant did, has done, or has said. The examples below illustrate how a theoretical question can be rephrased to make it a behavioral question.
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FIGURE 2: A Comparison of Theoretical and Behavioral Interview Questions
THEORETICAL
> When might you feel it
BEHAVIORAL
> When have you felt it
necessary to introduce change in your job?
necessary to introduce change in your job? Tell me about the change. difficult sale, and how did you approach it? have you recommended?
Targeted Selection® teaches the skills and techniques that help interviewers manage time so that they can cover all the assigned competencies during the interview. In addition, interviewers learn techniques to direct the discussion into and through areas that are most important to cover. These techniques help interviewers maintain control of both the time and the flow of information.
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Building rapport with the applicant by maintaining his or her self-esteem during the interview fosters a positive impression of the interview and the organization. Meeting applicants’ personal needs by building rapport does more than make them feel good about the interview; it also creates an atmosphere that encourages the applicants to give open and complete responses, even when discussing sensitive and negative topics.
Targeted Selection®’s comprehensive response to the 21 most common selection problems is just one example of what sets this program apart from others. The following differentiators also make Targeted Selection® unique in the marketplace:
> DDI measures the results of its Targeted Selection® implemen-
Targeted Selection® interviewing skills and techniques are an effective tool in ridding interviews of bias, stereotypes, and the halo effect.
COMPONENT 6: USE DATA INTEGRATION TO MAKE THE BEST HIRING DECISION.
Each participant in the Targeted Selection® process is responsible for covering specific competencies. To do that, people are trained to focus on gathering enough complete examples of behavior to evaluate an applicant in their assigned competencies. Targeted Selection® interviewers use a standard rating scale to evaluate applicant data, then they meet to share and discuss all the applicant data and their ratings in a data integration session. Because only behavioral examples can be used to support competency ratings, the discussion focuses on facts, thus eliminating the possibility of misinterpreting applicant responses. The systematic data integration process results in a consensus profile of each applicant’s strengths and weaknesses in the job’s competencies before an overall hiring decision is made. Doing so overcomes the problems encountered when applicant evaluation is haphazard and subjective.
tations. (See page 10 for relevant research results.)
> Targeted Selection® is available in a variety of blended
delivery options that ensure maximum training flexibility.
> Targeted Selection® training videos have won many THE SYSTEMATIC DATA INTEGRATION PROCESS RESULTS IN A CONSENSUS PROFILE OF EACH APPLICANT’S STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES IN THE JOB’S COMPETENCIES BEFORE AN OVERALL HIRING DECISION IS MADE.
prestigious honors, including: - A Gold Medal from The New York Festivals. - Two Golden Eagle awards from the Council on NonTheatrical Events (CINE). - Gold, silver, and bronze awards given at the 1994 Charleston International Film and Video Festival. - A 1995 Shooting Star Award from the American Corporate Video Awards. - A gold CINDY award, a John Cleese Comedy Award, and a bronze CINDY award given at the 1995 International CINDY Competition sponsored by the International Association of Audio Visual Communicators.
> Targeted Selection® implementations are supported by DDI’s
client realization process for maximum organizational impact.
The structured data evaluation and data exchange processes overcome, or at least minimize, many common selection problems:
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Because interviewers must substantiate their competency ratings with specific behavioral examples, the potential for biases, subjectivity, and stereotypes to affect decision making is reduced. Interviewers are less likely to let their skills slip over time because they know they have to provide specific information from the interview. Because hiring decisions are delayed until all data has been discussed, interviewers can no longer make decisions too early in the selection process.
The Targeted Selection® system keeps applicants informed about what happens throughout the process so that they aren’t wondering if and when a decision will be made.
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Creating a positive image cannot be overemphasized. It plays an increasingly critical role in the competition for the best people, and it can increase the percentage of job offers accepted. In addition, even people who are not offered a job—people who might be future clients or suppliers—can influence public opinion of the organization in a positive way if the interviewing process leaves a positive impression.
SUPPLEMENTARY HIRING TOOLS
The Targeted Selection® system offers training and materials for the following additional aspects of a selection system.
Problems are further minimized because several interviewers hear the facts presented and reach a conscious decision on competency ratings.
COMPONENT 7: MAKE A POSITIVE IMPRESSION ON APPLICANTS; SELL THEM ON THE JOB AND THE ORGANIZATION.
Research consistently shows that individuals are more prone to accept job offers when interviewers are enthusiastic about the job and organization and are genuinely interested in helping the applicant make the best job choice. Targeted Selection® supports that finding.
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Behavioral Simulations
Behavioral simulations are structured exercises that recreate relevant job/role situations and require participants to overtly demonstrate job-related behavior. They permit reliable, high-quality measurement of individual performance in specific competencies and are particularly useful for obtaining information that can be difficult to get in an interview. Behavioral simulations provide valuable information when applicants have had little opportunity to demonstrate certain behaviors (e.g., people applying for a sales position who have never had a sales job, recent college graduates, or people with little work experience). Simulations range in complexity from brief minisimulations conducted with interviews to lengthy and involved analyses used for executive assessments. Simulations can be administrative, involving individual problem solving, or interactive, with roleplayers or other participants.
Targeted Selection®’s structured interview guides are designed to avoid excessive overlap in competency coverage and to facilitate an organized and efficient interview process that applicants appreciate. Interviewers are assigned specific information to provide to applicants about the job, organization, and location. These assignments avoid repetition and ensure that all of the important information is given. In addition, Targeted Selection® interviewers are trained to highlight aspects of the job, organization, or location that are a good match with the applicant’s likes and dislikes.
FIGURE 3: How Targeted Selection® Overcomes Common Interviewing Problems
TS
Common Selection Problems
1. Interviewers fail to seek application information on the specific competencies needed for success in the job. 2. There is excessive overlap in competency coverage. 3. Interviewers misinterpret applicant information. 4. Interviewers ignore job fit motivation. 5. Interviewers ignore organization fit motivation. 6. Interviewers’ judgments are affected by biases and stereotypes. 7. Interviewers permit one competency to influence their evaluation of other competencies. 8. Interviewers allow applicants to control the interview. 9. Interviewers make quick decisions about applicants. 10. Interviewers focus on negative information about applicants. 11. Hiring managers rely too heavily on interviews. 12. Selection elements are not organized into a system. 13. Judgment is affected by pressure to fill the position. 14. Decisions are affected by the relative quality of other applicants. 15. Interviewers take insufficient notes during the interview. 16. Interviewers use different rating/evaluation standards. 17. Applicant information is not discussed systematically. 18. Interviewers don’t put their best effort into interviews. 19. Interviewers’ skills diminish over time. 20. Applicants react negatively to the interviewing process. 21. Applicants aren’t sold on the advantages of the job, organization, or location. X X X X X X X X
INTERVIEW
Assess job, Organize the organization selection fit motivation system X X
COMPONENTS
Apply effective Use data integration Make positive interviewing skills, to make the best impression, sell techniques hiring decision the job, organization X
Focus on Use past behavior job-related to predict future behavior behavior X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
To ensure accurate competency coverage, the situations used in a behavioral simulation should be similar to the job and environment without being identical. Exactly mirroring the job might create an unfair advantage for individuals who have performed particular tasks in the past. It could also favor internal applicants with specific job or organizational knowledge. Not all selection situations require behavioral simulations. Their use depends on how well interviews bring out past behavior and how much time is allocated for the selection process.
Behavioral simulations used in selection must:
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Be job related and accurately represent a significant component of the target job. Reliably simulate and elicit behavior related to the desired competencies. Meet professional standards for accuracy, objectivity, and fairness, containing no elements that might discriminate unfairly against protected classes (e.g., a simulation that uses language that is more sophisticated or technical than what is required in the target job might be ruled discriminatory). Be administered in the same way for all applicants who have reached the same stage in the selection process.
Be delivered by people who have been specifically trained as roleplayers and evaluators for simulations.
bility of the system, reduce costs, and preserve the system’s ability to select the best applicants for the job.
Targeted Selection® training offers supplemental training (half day to one day) in how to administer, observe, and evaluate behavior obtained from behavioral simulations.
Reference and Background Checks
Reference and background checks can verify the facts in an applicant’s application, résumé, or interview data. Targeted Selection® interview techniques are used to obtain reference and background information from people outside the organization (e.g., former supervisors or associates) who can provide additional behavioral information about an applicant.
Tests and Inventories
DDI tests and inventories help streamline the hiring process and increase the accuracy of hiring decisions. Tests can be used to identify relative strengths and development areas in applicants in areas such as:
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Analytical skills, problem solving, ability to handle interpersonal situations in work settings. Customer service-related judgment; adapting to work challenges; taking accountability for one’s work. Ability to learn; interpersonal skills; initiative; work standards. Motivational competencies and work style. Background in core competency areas. Ability to read, understand, make inferences and apply on-the-job information. Specific technical skills.
TOOLS TO SUPPORT A TARGETED SELECTION® IMPLEMENTATION
In response to client needs, DDI developed several computer-based products that aid in administering and implementing of the Targeted Selection® system.
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Identifying Criteria for Success® (ICS®) is a competency modeling software tool that generates a comprehensive survey on the frequency and importance of particular job activities and behaviors. People identified as “work content experts” rate each competency’s importance. ICS® analyzes the survey answers and compiles a rank-ordered competency list for the job to create interview guides with questions tailored for the job. Targeted Selection®: AccessSM (TS: AccessSM) is an easy-to-use online companion to Targeted Selection®. TS: AccessSM offers interviewers online access to the tools, information, decision-making support, and expert guidance needed for effective and efficient hiring. TS® administrators can use TS: AccessSM to create and distribute interview guides and applicant collateral. It supports the integration of applicants’ interview data and provides expert guidance and tools to sort and compare applicants online. TS: AccessSM also includes the Dimension Confirmation Wizard, a web-based application whose online questionnaires provide a streamlined process for confirming dimensions related to job success.
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While tests are a useful addition to the selection process, hiring decisions should not be made based solely on test scores. Tests should be integrated into a complete hiring process. Tests used in selection must be properly validated. When properly designed, validated, and administered, selection tests can increase the efficiency and quality of your selection process. DDI recommends testing as one of the initial phases in a behavior-based selection system where it is necessary to reduce the size of the applicant pool before subsequent Targeted Selection® interviews. By using relatively less expensive testing as an initial phase of a selection system, the client can maintain the legal credi-
The Motivational Fit Questionnaire contains the job and organization facets cited by applicants as common sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Using the questionnaire, an applicant evaluates the importance of the traits via computer or on paper (later optically read into a computer). The computer analyzes the applicant’s preferences against what is available (or not available) in the job or organization. Matches and discrepancies are determined, and suggested questions are provided for follow-up in the interview.
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Avoids areas of illegal questioning. Through background reading, examples, and self-tests, Targeted Selection® interviewers learn the areas of potential risk in interview questioning. They also learn to phrase questions clearly and carefully and ask only legal, job-related questions. Provides for consistency in handling applicants. The Targeted Selection® system is organized and designed to be applied uniformly to all applicants within a job category. Minimizes biases and stereotypes. In the Targeted Selection® data integration process, each interviewer describes the information he or she gathered from the applicant and uses that information to justify competency ratings. Then the group evaluates competencies based on all the available data, not just each individual’s own data. The process is designed to control biases and stereotypes, maintain hiring standards, and ensure fair and accurate selection decisions. Trains interviewers to use structured interview guides to ask planned behavioral questions and follow-up questions designed to elicit behavior in the target competencies. Trains interviewers in effective note taking. Interviewers are taught how to take notes during an interview so they can record behavioral data that will be used to document selection and promotion decisions.
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TARGETED SELECTION PROGRAM AND EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY
United States law demands fair and equal employment opportunity for all citizens. Federal and state laws require consistent and job-related selection processes. Penalties for ignoring or violating federal hiring laws are severe, often amounting to large settlements in the millions of dollars. European countries have equal concerns under European Union regulations. The Targeted Selection system has several features that make it particularly appealing to organizations concerned with equal opportunity in hiring.
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The Targeted Selection® system:
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Uses job-related competencies. Targeted Selection® focuses on competencies that have been identified through work analysis to be important to job success. All interview questions are aimed at these competencies, and the discussion of the applicant’s behavioral data is structured around them. The selection system’s content matches the job’s content. Trains interviewers to base hiring decisions on applicants’ past behavior. Targeted Selection® interviewers learn to gather complete behavioral information from applicants about past behavior that is directly related to the job’s target competencies. Also, interviewers use common rating standards to evaluate the data so they can directly connect past behavior to future behavior.
SUMMARY
DDI’s Targeted Selection® system provides practical solutions to many of the complex problems faced by managers responsible for hiring decisions. The key elements—competencies; structured, behaviorbased interviewing; a systematic and consistent interviewing system; and the systematic integration of data—are combined in a program that assures accurate, carefully considered, and high-quality hiring decisions supported by technologically advanced administrative tools.
REFERENCES
REFERENCES FOR THE COMMON PROBLEMS IN INTERVIEWING
Arvey, R.D., & Campion, J.E. (1982). The employment interview: A summary and review of recent research. Personnel Psychology, 35, 281–322. Conway, J.M., Jako, R.A., & Goodman, D.F. (1995). A meta-analysis of interrater and internal consistency reliability of selection interviews. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(5), 565–579. Dipboye, R.L. (1997). Structured selection interviews: Why do they work? Why are they underutilized? In N. Anderson & P. Herriot (Eds.), International Handbook of Selection and Assessment (455–473). Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. Gilliland, S.W., & Steiner, D.D. (1999). Applicant reactions. In R.W. Eder & M.M. Harris (Eds.), The Employment Interview Handbook (69–82). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Hakel, M.D. (1971). Similarity of post-interview trait rating intercorrelations as a contributor to interrater agreement in a structure employment interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 55, 443–448. Huffcutt, A.I., & Woehr, D.J. (1999). Further analysis of employment interview validity: A quantitative evaluation of interview-related structuring methods. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(4), 549–558. Jelf, G.S. (1999, Fall). A narrative review of post-1989 employment interview research. Journal of Business and Psychology,14(1), 25–58. Posthuma, R.A., Morgeson F.P., & Campion, M.A. (2002). Beyond employment interview validity: A comprehensive narrative review of recent research and trends over time. Personnel Psychology, 55(1), 1–81. Webster, E.C. (1969). The selection interview: Hopeless or hopeful? Studies in Personnel Psychology, 1(20), 6–8.
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL BEHAVIORAL INTERVIEWING
Huffcutt, A.I. (2003). Moderators of situational and behavioral description interview validity. Manuscript under review. Huffcutt, A.I., & Roth, P.L. (1998). Racial group differences in employment interview evaluations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(2), 179–189. Schmidt, F.L., & Hunter, J.E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 262–274. Taylor, P.J., & Small, B. (2002). Asking applicants what they would do versus what they did do: A meta-analytic comparison of situational and past behavior employment interview questions. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 75(3), 277–294. Williamson, L.G., Campion, J.E., Malos, S.B., Roehling, M.V., & Campion, M.A. (1997). Employment interview on trial: Linking interview structure with litigation outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(6), 900–912.
Visit DDIWorld to read how Targeted Selection® has resulted in cuts in employee turnover and improvements in sales and customer service. More than 75 validity studies have been done on Targeted Selection®. These studies have included all kinds of industries in locations worldwide. To read about these studies and learn more about Targeted Selection®, please go to http://www.ddiworld.com/research/ reports_summaries.asp, then from the Select Business Need list select Hiring & Assessment. You will find various reports and studies on Targeted Selection® under both “General Studies” and “Client Research Results.”
Jelf, G.S. (1999, Fall). A narrative review of post-1989 employment interview research. Journal of Business and Psychology, 14(1), 25–58.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
William C. Byham, Ph.D., is CEO and Chairman of DDI. In 1970 he developed the first behaviorbased interviewing system, Targeted Selection®. It is used by more than 3,000 organizations and is available in 10 languages. Dr. Byham is an internationally recognized thought leader, speaker, and author. His most recent book is Grow Your Own Leaders. For additional information about Development Dimensions International and our systems for building high-involvement organizations, call 1-800-933-4463.
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ABOUT DDI. Since 1970 Development Dimensions International has worked with some of the world’s most successful organizations to achieve superior business results by building engaged, high-performing workforces. We excel in two major areas. Designing and implementing selection systems that enable you to hire better people faster. And identifying and developing exceptional leadership talent
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