...Neurons are the specialized cells of the nervous system. There are three types of neurons: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. Sensory neurons are involved with sensation, such as feeling pain, and they relay messages to the brain or spinal cord. Motor neurons transmit impulses from the central nervous system to activate parts of the body, such as muscles or glands. Interneurons receive signals from sensory neurons and from hormones and act like bridges transferring messages between the sensory neurons and motor neurons. The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) is made almost entirely from interneurons. They are what make complex reflexes and the higher associative functions required for learning and memory possible. Communication between neurons, also termed neurotransmission or synaptic transmission is accomplished by the movement of chemicals and electrical signals across a synapse. Interneurons function by receiving information or messages (input) from other neurons, processing the information, and then sending this ‘output’ to other neurons through synapses. There are electrical synapses as well as chemical synapses. The electrical synapses are involved with long distance rapid communication. Chemical synapses process neurotransmission involving chemical messengers, or neurotransmitters. When neurons receive the threshold amount of electrical impulses or messages through dendrites they are triggered to fire and release stores of neurotransmitters...
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...muscles and is involved in memory capabilities * Glutamate- plays a role in memory, is the effect on the synaptic plasticity * GABA- moderates behaviors from eating to aggression, increases the amount of human growth hormone * Dopamine- involved in movement, attention, and learning * Serotonin- associated with the regulation of sleep, eating, and pain, it also improves and contributes to moods * Endorphins- involved in the brain’s effort to deal with pain and elevate mood Write one – two sentence descriptions of the following: * Nervous system- is made up of the central nervous system. Network of nerve cells and fibers that transmit nerve impulses between parts of the body. * Endocrine system- secretes hormones, chemicals that regulate the functioning of the body, via the bloodstream. * Central core- consists of the brain and spinal cord, help regulate basic life processes, including breathing, pulse, arousal, movement, balance, sleep, and the early stage of processing sensory information. * Limbic system- found on the border of the old and new brain, is associated with eating, aggression, reproduction, and experiences of pleasure and pain. * Cerebral cortex- the new brain, has areas that control voluntary movement (the motor area) the senses (sensory area), and thinking, reasoning, speech, and memory (the association areas). Write a “test question” about neuroplasticity. [What is a question you...
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...in a core feature of the disorder, as well as in the youngsters' brain structures. Girls with autism display less repetitive and restricted behavior than boys do, according to the study. FULL STORY Girls with autism display less repetitive and restricted behavior than boys do, according to a study by researchers at the Stanford University School of Medicine. The study also found that brain differences between boys and girls with autism help explain this discrepancy. The study, which will be published online Sept. 3 in Molecular Autism, gives the best evidence to date that boys and girls exhibit the developmental disorder differently. "We wanted to know which specific clinical manifestations of autism show significant gender differences, and whether patterns in the brain's gray matter could explain behavioral differences," said the study's senior author, Vinod Menon, PhD, professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences. Knowledge of the difference could help clinicians better recognize and treat autism in both sexes, he added. "Understanding this is really quite crucial clinically." "We found strong evidence for gender differences in autism," said postdoctoral scholar Kaustubh Supekar, PhD, the study's lead author. The researchers used two large, public databases to examine nearly 800 children with highfunctioning forms of autism in the United States, he said. Repetitive and restricted behavior is perhaps the most widely recognized of the three core features of ...
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...response is voluntary, how do we really know that we are cold, and what is our brain doing involuntarily to keep temperatures constant. At times our temperature will move away from the set point, whether through environmental effects such as exposure to cold or internal processes including fever and exercise. How is Heat Distributed Throughout the Body? Humans are homeotherms, maintaining an average core temperature of 37 +/- 0.5 degrees Celsius. Core temperature varies slightly due to environmental and metabolic factors. Exercise or fever may raise core temperature by up to three degrees, while exposure to cold may lower core temperature by a degree. Beyond these boundaries, the human is susceptible to heat stroke (elevated temperature) or hypothermia, both of which are life threatening conditions. While core temperature is tightly regulated, skin temperature varies greatly in response to metabolism and the environment. Temperature receptors in the skin (cold and hot) detect these changes, initiating compensatory mechanisms through the central nervous system. How Does the Body Produce Heat? Energy in the form of heat is gained by two methods: production (metabolic) and acquisition (environmental). Heat production and retention are elevated by a number of factors. 1. Muscular Activity and Shivering – the conversion of stored chemical energy results in a net increase in heat throughout the skeletal muscle, which spreads through the body. 2. Thyroxin...
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...2.5 Describe the roles of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems - somatic system enables us to feel changes we can control and the autonomic is things we cant control 2.6 Explain how the hormones released by glands interact with the nervous system and affect behavior. -endocrine glands have no conducts and secrete their chemicals directly into the bloodstream affecting the activity of the muscles and organs 2.7 Describe how the autonomic nervous system and body are impacted by stress. -GAS is the body reaction to stress and includes 3 stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. stress causes the immune system to react as though an illness 2.8 Describe how lesioning studies and brain stimulation are used to study the brain. -lesioning uses an electrical current to kill off the target neurons and uses the human brain to learn about the brain functions 2.9 Describe how neuroimaging techniques can provide information about the brain’s structure and...
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...Ambiguity of the word Stress is a term that is commonly used today but has become increasingly difficult to define. It shares, to some extent, common meanings in both the biological and psychological sciences. The term stress had none of its contemporary connotations before the 1920s. It is a form of the Middle English destresse, derived via Old French from the Latin stringere, "to draw tight."[1] It had long been in use in physics to refer to the internal distribution of a force exerted on a material body, resulting in strain. In the 1920s and 1930s, the term was occasionally being used in biological and psychological circles to refer to a mental strain, unwelcome happening, or, more medically, a harmful environmental agent that could cause illness. Walter Cannon used it in 1926 to refer to external factors that disrupted what he called homeostasis.[2] Homeostasis is a concept central to the idea of stress. In biology, most biochemical processes strive to maintain equilibrium, a steady state that exists more as an ideal and less as an achievable condition. Environmental factors, internal or external stimuli, continually disrupt homeostasis; an organism’s present condition is a state in constant flux wavering about a homeostatic point that is that organism’s optimal condition for living. Factors causing an organism’s condition to waver away from homeostasis can be interpreted as stress. A life-threatening situation such as a physical insult or prolonged starvation can greatly...
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...walter kovacs Appendix C Brain Response of Behavior Part I Note: Parts II and III follow below, complete all three. Write a 350- to 700-word response to the following: Explain the communication process of neurons in the brain. List some common neurotransmitters and describe their effect on behavior. Neurons are vital in brain function, and both receive and send information. The brain holds as much as 100 billion neurons. A neuron is composed of a nucleus, cytoplasm, and a cell membrane. Dendrites are tiny fibers that pick up messages from other neurons and send them to the cell body. The axon is a single fiber that carries information to glands, muscles or other neurons. The process begins with a message sent from a presynaptic neuron. The message travels through the axon and reaches the terminal buttons which release neurotransmitters housed in synaptic vesicles. Neurotransmitters are then released into the space between the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters cross this space and combine with receptors of the postsynaptic neuron. The message is relayed and the neurotransmitter detaches from the receptor, and is recycled, disposed, or reabsorbed. Acetylcholine (ACh) is responsible for controlling arousal, attention, motivation, and movement. Too much ACh causes spasms and tremors, too little causes paralysis or torpor. Dopamine is responsible for emotions and behaviors. Pleasure and pain are also controlled by dopamine. Excessive amount lead to mental...
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...consists of five structures that make up the fore, mid, and hindbrain from anterior to posterior. These five structures are the Telencephalon, the Diencephalon, the Mesencephalon (mid-brain), the Metencephalon, and the myelencephalon. Myelencecephalon The Myelencephalon is the posterior part of the brain, also known as the medulla. It is composed largely of tracts carrying signals between the brain and the rest of the body. An interesting part of the Myelencephalon is called the reticular formation. Reticular formation is a complex network of around 100 tiny nuclei that occupies the central core and also the brain stem from the posterior boundary of the Myelencephalon to the anterior boundary of the midbrain. This part of the brain even plays a role in arousal which is why it is sometimes referred to as reticular activating system. However, this term can be misleading because the nuclei of the reticular formation are involved sleep, attention, movement, the maintenance of muscle tone, and various cardiac, circulatory, and respiratory reflexes. Metencephalon The Metencephalon is much like the Myelencephalon as they both house many ascending and descending tracts and forms part of the reticular formation. These structures create buldges which are referred to as pons which is located on the brain stems ventral surface. The other major division of the Metencephalon is the cerebellum. This is the large convoluted structure...
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...strategist: the human brain. The brain is a wondrous organ. As scientists uncover more of its inner workings through brain-mapping techniques,1 our understanding of its astonishing abilities increases. But the brain isn't the rational calculating machine we sometimes imagine. Over the millennia of its evolution, it has developed shortcuts, simplifications, biases, and basic bad habits. Some of them may have helped early humans survive on the savannas of Africa ("if it looks like a wildebeest and everyone else is chasing it, it must be lunch"), but they create problems for us today. Equally, some of the brain's flaws may result from education and socialization rather than nature. But whatever the root cause, the brain can be a deceptive guide for rational decision making. The basic assumption of modern economics—rationality—does not stack up against the evidence These implications of the brain's inadequacies have been rigorously studied by social scientists and particularly by behavioral economists, who have found that the underlying assumption behind modern economics—human beings...
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...Ecstasy has an impact on an individual’s sensations and behaviours through altering the brain’s chemical balance; the serotonin levels in the brain are increased through altering the reuptake process (Efrain, 2001). When ecstasy—or MDMA (the main psychoactive component of ecstasy)—is introduced to the system, it transforms the natural process of serotonin re uptake that would normally be occurring causing there to be an unnaturally high level of serotonin in the system (Sprague et al 1998). This increase in serotonin is thought to be the cause of many of the effects of ecstasy. This essay will firstly support the view that serotonin is the cause of many of the effects of ecstasy but will then go on to discuss how other neurotransmitters such as dopamine and neuroepherine and hormones are also responsible for some of the effects of ecstasy whilst still maintaining the argument that although other neurotransmitters have certain effects serotonin has the most prominent role in the effects of ecstasy. Although the use of ecstasy may feel psychologically euphoric for the user, the impact on the body is far less positive and can achieve detrimental levels (Sprague et al1998). Previous studies have shown that users who use MDMA for prolonged periods or who use it heavily are more likely to reduce the overall number of serotonin transporters (SERT) that remain capable of bringing the neurotransmitter back to the neuron after it is released (Simon et al, 2002)—this creates a damage...
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...Thousands of neurotransmitters rush through the axon terminal, flying into the millimeter-long chasm before meeting the beckoning dendrites of the new neuron. It is the brain’s most beautiful gift: the “synaptic kiss” I am many things—an advocate, a researcher, the owner of an expansive collection of dog-eared classics. I can cook minute rice in thirty seconds and spew countless statistics on the dangers of secondhand smoke. Yet, after all my tobacco control work, the field of science had thus far failed to satiate my intellectual voracity. That was, until the first semester of my senior year, as my psychology class tackled the Goliath that was the brain unit. As we pieced together the different segments of neural networks and glial cells, Mrs. Hobbs taught us how neurotransmitters bind to their receptor sites A miraculous journey dubbed the “synaptic kiss”. Something about that euphemism stimulated me, brought me to the forefront....
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...homeostasis. The impact of temperature is a major factor in terms of a functioning human body. Thermoregulation is defined as the regulation of body temperature. Thermoregulation is the process that allows the human body to maintain its core internal temperature. The state of having an even internal temperature is called homeostasis. All thermoregulatory mechanisms are designed to return the body to homeostasis. The body’s core temperature should remain at ideally between 37°C and 37.8°C,this is when the body...
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...ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, or ADHD, is a very complex condition that generates a great deal of debate. The debate surrounding this disorder is intense. Debates encompass issues such as, what causes it, how to assess ADHD, and how to deal with it effectively. This essay deals with some of the debates in an attempt to simplify the issues. The first question that needs to be answered is what is ADHD? It is behavioural problems revolving around three main symptoms. One main symptom that an ADHD person displays is the inability to keep their attention focused on something. They are easily distracted, forget instructions and have a poor short term memory. The second main symptom prevalent among those with ADHD is their impulsiveness. They act or shout out inappropriately. They have a short fuse which can lead to temper tantrums. The third main symptom is that those with ADHD are hyperactive. They are unable to sit still and are often restless and fidgety. These factors usually cause problems within the sufferer’s families. ADHD symptoms also cause problems for the sufferer in educational settings, (for children) and in occupational settings, (for adults). There are three subtypes to ADHD. The first subtype is someone who is both hyperactive and impulsive. The second subtype is one who is inattentive only. For example, studies show that at least 40% of people with ADHD have the “Inattentive Type” only. The third subtype is one who shows all of these symptoms combined...
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...nervous system is the control center of the whole body. Nerves are alot like wires that carry signals or impulses throughout the body. Inside each nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers. Some nerves are longer than other nerves, these are the type of nerve that go from the top of your body to the bottom of your body. Nerve cells are called neurons. There are two main types of nerves: motor nerves and sensory nerves. Motor nerves are used by the brain to control all the muscles throughout our body. The brain sends signals via the motor nerves to tell us what to do what is certain situations. For instance when we are lifting weights the brain obviously knows to push harder instead of not push at all. There are the things that we do every day....
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...knowledge of the universe and how it functions. However, as groups started to interpret this further gain of knowledge as going to far because it went beyond what their religion taught them or interrupted their morals. Neural engineering follows the same path as any other science, ethically and practically. Some applications of this technology that arises controls your brain and can change how you act or feel. Ultimately changing our character and who we are at the “core”. In addition to striving to attain a deep understanding of complex neural systems and mechanics, neuroengineers use these methods to apply to their research or design to eventually control the brain, thus fully understanding how it works. One research project is going towards trying to find a way to make a mood switch and installing it into the human brain. This is especially beneficial to those suffering from depression. Depression, from a neurological standpoint, is a medical condition in which lowered mood occurs in response to the brain’s not receiving enough neurotransmitters. The antidepressants that are commonly used are not very useful in the way that they don’t target and treat the problem. “When a drug get[s] to the brain, its effects are felt in all parts of the brain.” Some include very dangerous side effects that show just how complicated and sensitive our brains are. And...
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