...The History of Computers Thousands of years ago calculations were done using people’s fingers and pebbles that were found just lying around. Technology has transformed so much that today the most complicated computations are done within seconds. Human dependency on computers is increasing everyday. Just think how hard it would be to live a week without a computer. We owe the advancements of computers and other such electronic devices to the intelligence of men of the past. The history of the computer dates back all the way to the prehistoric times. The first step towards the development of the computer, the abacus, was developed in Babylonia in 500 B.C. and functioned as a simple counting tool. It was not until thousands of years later that the first calculator was produced. In 1623, the first mechanical calculator was invented by Wilhelm Schikard, the “Calculating Clock,” as it was often referred to as, “performed it’s operations by wheels, which worked similar to a car’s odometer” (Evolution, 1). Still, there had not yet been anything invented that could even be characterized as a computer. Finally, in 1625 the slide rule was created becoming “the first analog computer of the modern ages” (Evolution, 1). One of the biggest breakthroughs came from by Blaise Pascal in 1642, who invented a mechanical calculator whose main function was adding and subtracting numbers. Years later, Gottfried Leibnez improved Pascal’s model by allowing it to also perform such operations as...
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...first calculator and then the computers. The term 'computer' is derived from the word 'compute', which means to calculate. A computer is an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and controlling operations that can be expressed either in logical or numerical terms. In simple words, a computer is an electronic device that performs mathematical and non-mathematical operations with the help of instructions to process the data to achieve desired results. Although the application domain of a computer depends totally on human creativity and imagination, it covers a huge area of applications including education, industries, government, medicine, scientific research, law and even music and arts. This chapter provides a detailed description of evolution, generations and characteristics of computers along with their classification and applications. CHAPTER 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS Man developed computers so that it could perform intricate operations such as calculation and data processing or entertain him. Today, computers are everywhere—in our offices, homes, appliances and automobiles—the list is endless. Much of the world's infrastructure runs on computers, and the computers have profoundly changed our lives, mostly for the better. Let us discuss some of the characteristics of a computer, which make it an essential part of every emerging technology and such a desirable tool in human development. * Speed: The computers...
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...Computer History Year/EnterComputer History Inventors/InventionsComputer History Description of Event 1936 Konrad Zuse - Z1 ComputerFirst freely programmable computer. 1942 John Atanasoff & Clifford Berry ABC ComputerWho was first in the computing biz is not always as easy as ABC. 1944 Howard Aiken & Grace Hopper Harvard Mark I ComputerThe Harvard Mark 1 computer. 1946 John Presper Eckert & John W. Mauchly ENIAC 1 Computer20,000 vacuum tubes later... 1948 Frederic Williams & Tom Kilburn Manchester Baby Computer & The Williams TubeBaby and the Williams Tube turn on the memories. 1947/48 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain & Wiliam Shockley The TransistorNo, a transistor is not a computer, but this invention greatly affected the history of computers. 1951 John Presper Eckert & John W. Mauchly UNIVAC ComputerFirst commercial computer & able to pick presidential winners. 1953 International Business Machines IBM 701 EDPM ComputerIBM enters into 'The History of Computers'. 1954 John Backus & IBM FORTRAN Computer Programming LanguageThe first successful high level programming language. 1955 (In Use 1959) Stanford Research Institute, Bank of America, and General Electric ERMA and MICRThe first bank industry computer - also MICR (magnetic ink character recognition) for reading checks. 1958 Jack Kilby & Robert Noyce The Integrated CircuitOtherwise known as 'The Chip' 1962 Steve Russell & MIT Spacewar Computer...
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...Background of the study The computer as we know it today had its beginning with a 19th century English mathematics professor name Charles Babbage. He designed the Analytical Engine and it was this design that the basic framework of the computers of today are based on. Generally speaking, computers can be classified into three generations. Each generation lasted for a certain period of time,and each gave us either a new and improved computer or an improvement to the existing computer. First generation: 1937 – 1946 - In 1937 the first electronic digital computer was built by Dr. John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry. It was called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). In 1943 an electronic computer name the Colossus was built for the military. Other developments continued until in 1946 the first general– purpose digital computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was built. It is said that this computer weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which was used for processing. When this computer was turned on for the first time lights dim in sections of Philadelphia. Computers of this generation could only perform single task, and they had no operating system. Second generation: 1947 – 1962 - This generation of computers used transistors instead of vacuum tubes which were more reliable. In 1951 the first computer for commercial use was introduced to the public; the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC 1). In 1953 the International Business Machine (IBM)...
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...Evolution of Computer Technology Catherine L. Dean 2142CMIS3106380 March 9, 2014 Table of Contents I. Introduction 3 II. Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) 3 III. Pipelining 3 IV. Cache Memory 4 V. Virtual Memory 4 VI. Conclusion 5 VII. Works Cited 5 I. Introduction The purpose of this paper is to investigate the evolution of and current trends in improving system performance with respect to RISC, pipelining, cache memory, and virtual memory. II. Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) Reduced Instruction Set Computing also known as RISC is a type of microprocessor architecture. It is a CPU design strategy. The purpose of RISC was for design simplification. It increases the number of executed instructions thus increasing the CPU performance. (Joy) The RISC design was first proposed and implemented in the 1960s and has been constantly evolving. Since the late 1980’s, RISC has been more than doubling its performance every year and half. The RISC industry, which includes IBM and Sun Microsystems, is ever expanding with the focus on the speed of executing instructions per second along with the evolution of the computer industry. (Joy) III. Pipelining One characteristic of RISC processors is pipelining. With pipelining, instructions are able to be executed in a shorter period of time. The first step in pipelining is to find the instructions, then read the registers, decode the instructions, execute the instruction, access the data...
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...Abbreviated version of this report is published as "Trends in Computer Science Research" Apirak Hoonlor, Boleslaw K. Szymanski and M. Zaki, Communications of the ACM, 56(10), Oct. 2013, pp.74-83 An Evolution of Computer Science Research∗ Apirak Hoonlor, Boleslaw K. Szymanski, Mohammed J. Zaki, and James Thompson Abstract Over the past two decades, Computer Science (CS) has continued to grow as a research field. There are several studies that examine trends and emerging topics in CS research or the impact of papers on the field. In contrast, in this article, we take a closer look at the entire CS research in the past two decades by analyzing the data on publications in the ACM Digital Library and IEEE Xplore, and the grants awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). We identify trends, bursty topics, and interesting inter-relationships between NSF awards and CS publications, finding, for example, that if an uncommonly high frequency of a specific topic is observed in publications, the funding for this topic is usually increased. We also analyze CS researchers and communities, finding that only a small fraction of authors attribute their work to the same research area for a long period of time, reflecting for instance the emphasis on novelty (use of new keywords) and typical academic research teams (with core faculty and more rapid turnover of students and postdocs). Finally, our work highlights the dynamic research landscape in CS, with its focus constantly ...
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...Evolution of Computer Applications and Architecture By Ken Jacobi, Computer Architecture (IT-501) In discussing the evolution of computer architecture, we find that there are many angles on how people tend to view things. Some will take consideration in how things have changed over the last few years. Others will take a stronger look at the direction of where they believe technology is going. A third focus is in regards to the unexpected mistakes that people have made. In conjunction with the past, how can these mistakes be avoided in the coming future and evolution of technology; both for equal and competitive reasons. In part with this, we can turn to the very basic view about what makes a good design. Many architectural topics once began with the idea that if you build something and develop it correctly, change is not something one should expect. If it’s developed right the first time then you don’t have to change it. In this successful strive, people have come to the underlying conclusion that this is a very unrealistic position to be. A very good place to stress the relevance here is by dating back to the start of an exciting architectural turn of events that have gotten us to where we now are: the birth of modern computing. Many will say that this “landmark” of progress has lead to an evolutional launch that we constantly live within. It’s safe to say that these embarking events once began somewhere amongst the early 1970s. Coming out of the...
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...The Evolution of Human Computer Interface and Beyond Contents 1. Abstract 2 2. Introduction 3 3. Evolution of HCI 4 4. Important features and facts to ponder 5 4.1 Operating systems and their role in HCI 5 4.2 HCI in the making of a virtual reality 6 5. Glimpse towards the future of HCI 7 5.1 HCI for enhancing human life 7 5.2 Uses and Impacts of HCI 9 6. Conclusion 11 7. References 12 Abstract “HCI concept came into the spotlight after various researches; the improvement of GUIs paved the path for a better and advanced interaction between humans and computers. Interaction with computers has become so close; it almost devoured the human life styles. Future human life will be much dependent upon technology than ever before.” Introduction People live in a curious and modern world where they go to no lengths to embrace technology. It is people who pick and choose what to use more efficiently. HCI (Human Computer Interface) is one of the catalysts which revolutionised the computer technology to a greater extent during the past three decades. HCI concept came into the spotlight after various researches which had been done on various universities and other research labs mainly across USA. But HCI took the centre stage after the rapid growth of GUI (Graphical User Interface)...
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...STUDY ON EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS STUDY ON EVOLUTION OF SOFTWARE Introduction Computer software, or just software, is any set of machine-readable instructions that directs a computer's processor to perform specific operations. The term is used to contrast with computer hardware; the physical objects carry out the instructions. Hardware and software require each other and neither has any value without the other. The first theory about software was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem). Colloquially, the term is often used to mean application software. In computer science and software engineering, software is all information processed by computer system, programs and data. The academic fields studying software are computer science and software engineering. The types of software include web pages developed in languages and frameworks like PHP, Perl, JSP or ASP.NET and desktop applications like OpenOffice.org, Microsoft Word developed in languages like C, C++, Objective-C, Java, C#, or Smalltalk. Application software usually runs on underlying software operating systems such as Linux or Microsoft Windows. Software (or firmware) is also used in video games and for the configurable parts of the logic systems of automobiles, televisions, and other consumer electronics. Software evolution is the term used in software engineering (specifically software...
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...Universal Gas Constant * What are the four measurable properties of gases? Temperature, volume, moles, pressure. * R is the universal gas constant that relate the four properties of gases in one relationship. Write down the formula equal to R. PV = R nT * What is the unit that you used for R? Atm.L\k.mol * Hydrogen gas has properties very nearly like an ideal gas. Write down the equation for the production of H2 gas Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) * In our experiment, the total pressure of the gas was calculated by adding P(hydrogen) and P(water vapor). Where did the water vapor come from? * The H2 is collected over water bath * There is also some water vapor * Pressure of H2 is different than that of H2O * Explain how did you measure the following properties of H2 gas: Temperature of H2 | thermometer | Volume of H2 | HCl in the burette we Invert burette into beaker thwn we read it from the beurette | Moles of H2 | n = m/M | * A burette which contains 0.001 moles of Mg metal and HCl solution, was inverted in water bath of 300 kelvin. The reaction produces 0.025 L of hydrogen gas with a total pressure of 1 atm. Calculate the gas constant of H2. R= PVnT = 1 × 0.0250.001 × 300 = 0.0833 atm.L\k.mol * A 0.614 mole sample of ideal gas at 12 °C occupies a volume of 4.3 L. What is the pressure of the gas? (R = 0.0821 L.atm/mol.K) 12 °C+273.15=285...
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...Using Computer Modeling to Explain the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection Throughout The Blind Watchmaker Richard Dawkins attempts to use computer modeling to explain and defend various aspects of the theory of evolution by natural selection. Where Dawkins’ computer modeling comes into use in a significant way is discussed in Chapter 3 of his book titled, “Accumulating Small Change”. In it, Dawkins takes the reader through explanations of what cumulative selection is and how it builds up biological complexity in a meaningful, and relatively quick, way. He does this with computer modeling and continues on with various other examples of computer models to explain how genes work, what mutation looks like, and how it gets selected. The following is a look at how he uses computer modeling to these ends and what their limits are, essentially, what sort of questions they can answer. Dawkins begins Chapter 3 of The Blind Watchmaker by posing the question of how living things came into existence if not by chance. He explains that it was by a series of “gradual, step-by-step transformations” from entities simple enough to have come about existing by chance transitioning into entities which are incredibly complex and which could not have come to exist by chance alone (Dawkins 43). This transitional process is achieved through “nonrandom survival” and is known as cumulative selection (Dawkins 43). From here we are told about the difference between single-step selection...
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...The theory of evolution, formalized by Charles Darwin, is as much theory as is the theory of gravity, or the theory of relativity. Unlike theories of physics, biological theories, and especially evolution, have been argued long and hard in socio-political arenas. Even today, evolution is not often taught in primary schools. However, evolution is the binding force of all biological research. It is the unifying theme. In paleontology, evolution gives workers a powerful way to organize the remains of past life and better understand the one history of life. The history of thought about evolution in general and paleontological contributions specifically are often useful to the workers of today. Science, like any iterative process, draws heavily from its history. It is a FACT that the earth with liquid water, is more than 3.6 billion years old. It is a FACT that cellular life has been around for at least half of that period and that organized multicellular life is at least 800 million years old. It is a FACT that major life forms now on earth were not at all represented in the past. There were no birds or mammals 250 million years ago. It is a FACT that major life forms of the past are no longer living. There used to be dinosaurs and Pithecanthropus, and there are none now. It is a FACT that all living forms come from previous living forms. Therefore, all present forms of life arose from ancestral forms that were different. Birds arose from nonbirds and humans from nonhumans. No person...
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...information that can result in identity theft and compromising of sensitive information has increased in the last decade. Cybercrimes have evolved and intensified as hackers develop and supply exploits that can be used as tools for stealing valuable information from financial institution such as banks. Motivations and Evolution Since the evolution of hacking, the skills and creativity of hackers have matured and the motivation behind hacking has been revolutionized from the origins to its current form. Oriyano & Gregg (2011) opines that in the 1960’s, the first generation of hackers that emerged were technology enthusiasts who created the building blocks for technological advancement. These hackers were motivated by intellectual curiosity and entertainment (Oriyano & Gregg, 2011). However, Oriyano & Gregg (2011) argues that the negative connotations that society identifies hackers began in the 1980’s in which they became computer criminals. Hacker’s activities were predominantly theft of services motivated by financial gains or personal gratification (Oriyano & Gregg, 2011). Subsequently, numerous hackers did not seem satisfied with the benign exploration of computer systems simply to learn about their internal operations as the hackers were now interested in individual gains (Clarke, Clawson & Cordell, 2003). From the 1990’s to the present, hackers criminal pursuits have propelled from pranks to malicious DoS attacks, financial damages to numerous enterprises and a thriving...
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...the evolution of mass media. Developments such as the television, newspapers, radio, internet, and the cellular phone have all contributed to the evolution of mass media. This essay will discuss each development of mass media and how it has influenced American culture as we know it. Major Developments of Mass Media in the 20th Century The newspaper happens to be one of the pioneers of mass media. In its early stages the newspaper was handwritten during the 15th century. Newspapers has steadily increased since its earlier days, but a new form of mass media was on the horizon with the introduction of the radio. Radio was first introduced in the “early decades of the 20th century” (pg. 31). This allowed for millions of people to access anything from presidential elections to advertising. The next form of mass media to come was the television. Following the end of World War II the television revolutionized the way we communicated through mass media. With continual enhancements to the television like the VCR and cable television, this allowed individuals the freedom to record and view television whenever and however they wanted. It wasn’t until the creation of the personal computer sometime around the 1960’s that the world witnessed such an enormous breakthrough in mass media. The personal computer has also enhanced since its beginning stages. The internet and RAM has helped along in the evolution of the personal computer. The...
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...| University of Phoenix Material Effects of Mass Media Worksheet Write brief 250-to 300-word answers to each of the following: |Questions |Answers | |What were the major developments in the |The major developments in the evolution of mass media during the 20th century are radio, | |evolution of mass media during the 20th |cinema, television, Internet, books, newspaper, computer, and telephone. The radio has | |century? |evolved into a global phenomenon that introduced the world to vinyl record to the compact | | |disc with a way to get the news in the early 1900s. Cinema has come a long way from the | | |early 1900s being in black and white to color and being in 2-D and 3-D. Television has | | |changed from being small and bulky using an antennae to being flat-screen with High | | |Definition and 3-D. Newspapers were invented to spread the news of the world within a | | |certain timeframe. Newspaper have evolved into a multi-million dollar business with the | | |help of better printing resources and the demand in the early 20th century of needing to | | ...
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