...suffer from problems such as enzyme leakage from matrix when the interactions are relatively weak. Nonspecific Adsorption The simplest immobilization method is nonspecific adsorption, which is mainly based on physical adsorption or ionic binding. In physical adsorption, the enzymes are attached to the matrix through hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces, or hydrophobic interactions; whereas in ionic bonding the enzymes are bound through salt linkages. This method is the easiest method of preparing immobilized enzymes, being based on the physical adsorption of the enzyme molecules onto the surface of solid matrices. Ionic binding Ionic binding provides a slightly more specific way of attaching an enzyme to a carrier: many ion exchange resins, example DEAE-...
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...INTRODUCTION: Lipase also called as triacylglycerol acylhydrolaseis an enzyme known for its enormous applications for industry and diagnostics. Their basic activity is to convert fats into fatty acids and glycerol. These enzymes are water soluble in nature. They also convert polar solvents into more lipolytic substances. In 1856, a scientist name claude Bernard has identified lipase [1]. Lipases are serine hydrolases containing G-X1-S-X2-G sequences as the catalytic part of the particle, where G = glycine, S = serine, X1 = histidine, X2 = glutaminic or aspartic acid. Such structure is characteristic also for serine proteases. The knowledge of their 3-dimensional structure plays a significant role in designing and structuring lipases...
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...pepsin, the powerful enzyme in gastric juice that digests proteins such as those in meat, eggs, seeds, or dairy products. Pepsin was first recognized in 1836 by the German physiologist Theodor Schwann. In 1930 it was crystallized and its protein nature established by John H. Northrop of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. Glands in the mucous-membrane lining of the stomach make and store an inactive protein called pepsinogen. Impulses from the vagus nerve and the hormonal secretions of gastrin and secretin stimulate the release of pepsinogen into the stomach, where it is mixed with hydrochloric acid and rapidly converted to the active enzyme pepsin. The digestive power of pepsin is greatest at the acidity of normal gastric juice (pH 1.5–2.5). In the intestine the gastric acids are neutralized (pH 7), and pepsin is no longer effective. In the digestive tract pepsin effects only partial degradation of proteins into smaller units called peptides, which then either are absorbed from the intestine into the bloodstream or are broken down further by pancreatic enzymes. Small amounts of pepsin pass from the stomach into the bloodstream, where it breaks down some of the larger, or still partially undigested, fragments of protein that may have been absorbed by the small intestine. Pepsin is prepared commercially from swine stomachs. Crude pepsin is used in the leather industry to remove hair and residual tissue from animal hides prior to their being tanned. It is also...
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...Bioremediation Methodologies Summer Teeters COM/172 June 23, 2014 Sherry Howard Salois Bioremediation Methodologies What is bioremediation? According to the Gale Encyclopedia of Science (2008), bioremediation is any process that purifies an environment polluted by organic or inorganic contaminants with the utilization of microorganisms or other such creatures. Intensive industrialization and inadequate disposal of organic and inorganic compounds have brought about long-term persistent sources of contamination of our environment. This is a major environmental, policy and health issue facing numerous countries today. Current methods for remediation of polluted environments incorporate chemical and physical remediation, incineration and bioremediation. These conventional physicochemical methodologies are for the most part costly and the remediation process is frequently incomplete. However, since its first commercialized use in the 1970s, experts in the environmental field claim that bioremediation has proven itself to be an economically viable and socially acceptable process to remove hazardous wastes from our environment (Cummings, 2010). In the ever-growing bioremediation field, recent advancements in technology have helped develop new methods of removing contaminants from soil more efficiently and cost effectively. The three primary methods of bioremediation incorporate the utilization of microbes, plants and enzymatic remediation. Every one of these three methods...
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...Name of the Assignment: Characterization and Applications of Lipases Course Title: Enzymology Course ID: BTC 517 Date of Submission: 3 August, 2012 Submitted To: Professor Naiyyum Choudhury Coordinator,Biotechnology MNS Department BRAC University Mohakhali, Dhaka Submitted By: Sultana Rownok Jahan M.S Biotechnology Summer 2012 MNS Department BRAC University Mohakhali,Dhaka. Introduction: Lipases are the special kind of esterases belong to subclass 1 of hydrolytic enzyme class 3 and have been assigned sub-sub class 3.1.1 due to their specificity for carboxylic acid ester bonds. Lipases (triacylglycerol acylhydrolases, E.C. 3.1.1.3) are ubiquitous enzymes of considerablephysiological significance and industrial potential. Lipases catalyze the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols to glycerol and free fatty acids. In contrast to esterases, lipases are activated only when adsorbed to an oil–water interface (Martinelle et al., 1995) and do not hydrolyze dissolved substrates in the bulk fluid. A true lipase will split emulsified esters of glycerine and long-chain fatty acids such as triolein and tripalmitin. Lipases are serine hydrolases and contain the consensus sequence G – X1 – S – X2 – G as the catalytic moiety, where G – glycine, S – serine,X1 – histidine and X2 – glutamic or aspartic acid .Lipases display little activity in aqueous solutions containing soluble substrates. In contrast, esterases show normal Michaelis–Menten...
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...Enzymes activity plays an important role on living organisms. Its activity can be affected by different factors, including environmental and molecular elements. Enzyme inhibition by some molecules can be competitive or noncompetitive according to the binding mechanism. The aim of this study was to determine the type of inhibition occurred by the phenylthiourea (PTU) on the catechol oxidase enzyme. Different substrate concentrations, 0.5, 1, and 1.5 mL, and presence (1mL) and absent of PTU was analyzed. Products were measured at 380 nm. Results showed product only when PTU was not present, except for in one tube. A PTU noncompetitive inhibition is proposed based on the inability to obtained product even when the substrate concentration is increased....
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...ABSTRACT Food and feed is possibly the area where processing anchored in biological agents has the deepest roots. Despite this, process improvement or design and implementation of novel approaches has been consistently performed, and more so in recent years, where significant advances in enzyme engineering has fastened the place of such developments. Targeted improvements aim at enzymes with enhanced thermal and operational stability, improved specific activity, modification of pH-activity profiles, and increased product specificity, among others. This has been mostly achieved through protein engineering and enzyme immobilization, along with improvements in screening. The latter has been considerably improved due to the implementation of high-throughput techniques, and due to developments in protein expression and microbial cell culture. Expanding screening to relatively unexplored environments (marine, temperature extreme environments) has also contributed to the identification and development of more efficient biocatalysts. Technological aspects are considered, but economic aspects are also briefly addressed. INTRODUCTION: Food processing through the use of biological agents is historically a well-established approach. The earliest applications go back to 6,000 BC or earlier, with the brewing of beer, bread baking, and cheese and wine making, whereas the first purposeful microbial oxidation dates from 2,000 BC, with vinegar production. Coming to modern days, in the late XIX...
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...insight commentary Virtual screening of chemical libraries Brian K. Shoichet Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, 600 16th Street, San Francisco, California 94143-2240, USA (e-mail: shoichet@cgl.ucsf.edu) Virtual screening uses computer-based methods to discover new ligands on the basis of biological structures. Although widely heralded in the 1970s and 1980s, the technique has since struggled to meet its initial promise, and drug discovery remains dominated by empirical screening. Recent successes in predicting new ligands and their receptor-bound structures, and better rates of ligand discovery compared to empirical screening, have re-ignited interest in virtual screening, which is now widely used in drug discovery, albeit on a more limited scale than empirical screening. T he dominant technique for the identification of new lead compounds in drug discovery is the physical screening of large libraries of chemicals against a biological target (high-throughput screening). An alternative approach, known as virtual screening, is to computationally screen large libraries of chemicals for compounds that complement targets of known structure, and experimentally test those that are predicted to bind well. Such receptor-based virtual screening faces several fundamental challenges, including sampling the various conformations of flexible molecules and calculating absolute binding energies in an aqueous environment. Nevertheless, the field has...
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...ans 777777 In object-oriented programming, polymorphism (from the Greek meaning "having multiple forms") is the characteristic of being able to assign a different meaning or usage to something in different contexts - specifically, to allow an entity such as a variable, a function, or an object to have more than one form. There are several different kinds of polymorphism. 1) A variable with a given name may be allowed to have different forms and the program can determine which form of the variable to use at the time of execution. For example, a variable named USERID may be capable of being either an integer (whole number) or a string of characters (perhaps because the programmer wants to allow a user to enter a user ID as either an employee number - an integer - or with a name - a string of characters). By giving the program a way to distinguish which form is being 2) A named function can also vary depending on the parameters it is given. For example, if given a variable that is an integer, the function chosen would be to seek a match against a list of employee numbers; if the variable were a string, it would seek a match against a list of names. In either case, both functions would be known in the program by the same name. This type of polymorphism is sometimes known as overloading. 3) Polymorphism can mean, as in the ML language, a data type of "any," such that when specified for a list, a list containing any data types can be processed by a function. (For example, if a...
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...and Organizing Life • Describe three ways of classifying, or ordering, life on earth. • Given a random ordering of the levels of organization of life, rearrange them into the proper sequence. • Describe the concept "an organism is more than the sum of its parts." • List the six kingdoms of life. • By definition, distinguish between a population, a community, and an ecosystem. • Distinguish between a producer, a consumer and a decomposer. III. Origins of Diversity- Evolution of Life • Define the term "biodiversity. • Define the term "evolution." • Describe how diversity of life can arise by the operation of natural selection. IV. The Nature of Biological Inquiry – Scientific Method • Distinguish between a hypothesis and a prediction • Distinguish between inductive and deductive logic • What is meant by the phrase "potentially falsifiable hypothesis"? • Define the term "control group" and tell the value of a control group in an experiment • Define the term "theory" and tell at what point in a study a hypothesis becomes a theory • Design an experiment to test a given hypothesis, using the procedure and terminology of the scientific method. Try the problem: "Does temperature affect the breathing rate of a goldfish"? • Describe at least three ways that science differs from systems of belief that are...
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... and the atomic weight of Nitrogen is 14.01. Nitrogen is one of four elements that make up living cells. A Nitrogen atom has protons and neutron in the central nucleus with two electrons on the inside and four electrons on the outside. Electrons on the outer shell will interact electrons of atoms to determine the chemical properties of atoms. Nitrogen-15 isotopes neutrons vary unlike the Nitrogen atom. The fifteen stands for the atomic weight, seven protons and eight neutrons. The Nitrogen Ion has varying numbers of electron. An Ion charge is determined by its name, with an extra negative charge for each extra electron or positive...
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...April, 2015 Available online: 28 September, 2015 Keywords: Beta: galactosidase, ONPG, X: gal, ONPG and X: gal Corresponding Author: Durve A.* Associate Professor Email: annikadurve ( at ) yahoo ( dot ) com Bhattiwala H. Lecturer Jagtap P. Scientific Officer Abstract In the present study microorganisms producing betagalactosidase enzyme were isolated from fermented millets mixture. Three bacterial isolate C2, C4, Y were found to be Gram positive bacilli, Gram negative cocobacili, Gram positive bacilli respectively while isolate SC2 was found to be yeast. These bacterial isolates were identified using various biochemical tests Growth study kinetics of microbial isolates was performed and the optimum pH and temperature was found. Beta-galactosidase enzyme was extracted and the effect of pH, temperature, substrate variation and incubation period on enzyme activity was studied. The activity of beta-galactosidase for all the microbial isolate increased with increase in temperature upto 37°C. Michaelis-Menten plot and Lineweaver Burk plot were constructed to calculate the Km and Vmax values. Immobilization of crude enzyme from the isolates was performed and enzyme activity using ONPG and lactose as a substrate was found. SDS PAGE analysis of the dialysate sample of bacterial isolate C2 and yeast isolate SC2 was...
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...3 Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. 4 Center for Biotechnology Research and Traininig. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. * Corresponding author, E-mail: mojitaibat@yahoo.com; Tel.:+2348035896043 1 ABSTRACT Laccase, a multicopper oxidase that catalyzes the oxidation of various aromatics, particularly phenolic substrates, e.g. hydroquinones guaiacol, 2,6-dimethoxyphenol or phenylene diamine, was purified and partially characterised from culture filtrates of a white rot fungus, Lachnocladium sp. This enzyme was purified by anion exchange and gel filtration chromatography. Laccase activity was determined using ABTS (2, 2’-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline)-6-sulphonic acid) substrate. The culture filtrate had maximum laccase activity of 1.62 U/ml after 14 days of incubation. The purified laccase had an optimum temperature of 50 oC and its optimum pH was 6 for ABTS. The activity of this enzyme was enhanced by Fe2+, Cu2+, Zn2+and Ca2+, and was inhibited by EDTA and sodium iodide. Laccase from Lachnocladium sp. had a Km of 0.119 mM and a Vmax of 0.313 U. © 2012 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved. Keywords: Lachnocladium sp., anion exchange chromatography, gel filtration chromatography, ABTS, DMP. INTRODUCTION Laccases (EC 1.10.3.2, p-diphenol: dioxygen oxidoreductase) belong to the...
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...BIO 566 INTRODUCTION TO BIOPHYSICS QUIZ 2 MAC-JULY 2012 Question 1 Write an essay on spectroscopy which includes : (15 marks) Basic principles, nature of electromagnetic radiation, types of spectra-(absorbance, emission and fluorescene) types of spectroscopy – (principle, instrumentation and applications of atomic absortion spectroscopy, UV Visible Spectroscopy, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy) Spectroscopy is the study of the absorption and emission of light and other radiation by matter, as related to the dependence of these processes on the wavelength of the radiation. More recently, the definition has been expanded to include the study of the interactions between particles such as electrons, protons, and ions, as well as their interaction with other particles as a function of their collision energy. Spectroscopic analysis has been crucial in the development of the most fundamental theories in physics, including quantum mechanics, the special and general theories of relativity, and quantum electrodynamics. Spectroscopy, as applied to high-energy collisions, has been a key tool in developing scientific understanding not only of the electromagnetic force but also of the strong and weak nuclear forces. The basic principle shared by all spectroscopic techniques is to shine a beam of electromagnetic radiation onto a sample, and observe how it responds to such a stimulus. The...
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...for admission to MBBS/BDS courses across the country (NEET-UG) after review of various State syllabi as well as those prepared by CBSE, NCERT and COBSE. This is to establish a uniformity across the country keeping in view the relevance of different areas in Medical Education. PHYSICS S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. CLASS XI Physical world and measurement Kinematics Laws of Motion Work, Energy and Power Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Body Gravitation Properties of Bulk Matter Thermodynamics Behaviour of Perfect Gas and Kinetic Theory Oscillations and Waves CLASS XII Electrostatics Current Electricity Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents Electromagnetic Waves Optics Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation Atoms and Nuclei Electronic Devices CHEMISTRY S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. CLASS XI Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Structure of Atom Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure States of Matter: Gases and Liquids Thermodynamics Equilibrium Redox Reactions Hydrogen s-Block Element (Alkali and Alkaline earth metals) Some p-Block Elements Organic Chemistry- Some Basic Principles and Techniques Hydrocarbons Environmental Chemistry CLASS XII Solid State Solutions Electrochemistry Chemical Kinetics Surface Chemistry General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements p- Block Elements d and f Block Elements...
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