...Does theory of mind develop gradually or is there a radical conceptual shift between the ages of 3 and 4 years? Explain how research evidence supports your views. From an evolutionary perspective, the complex and highly functional psychological abilities can be seen as a product of a continuous adaptation process. Well-developed mental skills form the basis of humans complex and advanced mental functioning, both interpersonal and intrapsychologically. One of these advanced mental abilities is the capability to attribute emotions, intentions and knowledge within yourself and others (Flavell, 2004). This is a form of social cognition or a mental understanding that within developmental psychology is termed “Theory of Mind”. It is often said that children start to develop a “Theory of Mind” at the age between 3 to 5 years (Premack & Woodruff, 1978), but scientists have always had different views and opinions about when and how Theory of Mind develops. Some researchers believe that this development happens gradually, while others believe there is a conceptual shift between the ages of 3 and 4. I will in this essay evaluate and discuss the different viewpoints with the support of previous research evidence. Within the theory of mind approach, the ability to attribute mental states to others is considered evidence for children having developed a psychological understanding of the mind as representational – that is, they have realised that what is in the mind is only a representation...
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...To what extent is Theory of Mind innate? Critically discuss with reference to genetic, social and cultural evidence. Theory of mind refers to an individual’s ability to understand the mental states of others (Baron-Cohen, 1989b). According to Buttelmann et al. (2008) over the years; psychological practice has seen an increase in research, debating whether theory of mind is innate. This apparent increase stems from controversial standard false-belief tasks and its influence on a person’s ability to have an operative theory of mind (Chandler, Fritz & Hala 1989). The connotations of these standard false-belief tasks act as an indicator for specific age boundaries, in which children are meant to start attributing mental states to others, through their understanding of false belief (Perner and Ruffman, 2005; Fodor, 1992; Mitchell,1996). The implications of these standard false-belief tasks will steer this discussion to focus on the extent at which theory of mind can be considered as innate with reference to genetic, social and cultural evidence. According to Whiten, (1993 pg. 3) “a theory of mind remains one of the quintessential abilities that makes us human” .Yet prior to Baron-Cohen’s (1989a) study, the traditional view held by most child developmental psychologists, (Piaget, 1983) was based on the idea that, any understanding of what goes on in another person’s mind has to be a calculated and difficult thing (Appleton and Reddy, 1996). Hence, in order to work...
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...Children’s Theoretical Perspective on the Theory of Mind and False Beliefs on Social Cognition Questions seeking an answer to a missing piece, puzzled with things unknown, and bothering twisted thoughts. These are primordial stuff experienced by an individual leading to curiosity. Curiosity which makes every person motivated in finding an answers. The fact that curiosity about a matter will always be the starting point of a new development. One of the best examples is the children. As we can see, children are the most determine explorer because for them everything is a mystery. To discover simple unfamiliar objects, to meliorate their knowledge and to understand their environment are their major goals which we can identify as mediocre. The genuine truth about children is their capacity to understand someone even though they have minimal knowledge on how mental life processes goes through. They can easily figure it out when someone is motivated in acquiring their wants or goals. As a matter of fact, sometimes they can also distinguish what are the positive and negative emotions. On the other hand, they can also practice their false beliefs where they can hardly define between what is real and what is true. Furthermore, as we adults, we are more matured enough in thinking and behaving in all matter. We have the responsibility to modify what we perceive and to justify and stand on what we believe is right and wrong. Nevertheless, people talk too much; people think...
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...During this study Jacob never figures out that he can fool the monkey. Every time the monkey asks him which sticker he really wants Jacob is honest and tells him which one he wants. According to Erickson’s staged of development, Jacob is in the second stage -Autonomy vs shame & doubt. In this stage children learn to either be self-sufficient or to doubt their own abilities. According to Berger (2006), until age four children are notoriously bad at fooling other people. Their understanding of what other people might think or believe is very limited. Jacob does not understand that he is able to fool the monkey and that the monkey does not know what he is thinking. Patrick on the other hand was able to fool the monkey. Every time the monkey asked which was his favorite sticker he pointed to the one he did not want. His also stated each time that he had crossed his fingers. He is in Erikson’s third developmental stage, initiative vs guilt. Patrick has the understanding that others do not know what he is thinking and his thoughts are not public. He was also able to understand that the monkey would take his sticker if he pointed to the one he really wanted. He was asked to think of what he could do or say so the monkey did not take the sticker, he was able to understand this and problem solve to make sure the monkey did not take the sticker. . Erickson also believed that problems of adult life reflect childhood issues. Children learn from parents, peers and society. If without the...
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...psyche nature is addressed through nature and observation through cognitive psychology while using abstracts to produce observable behavior and nature causing a further understanding of these processes (Willingham, 2007). Through the fall of behaviorism and by the help of technology, neuroscience and the application of concept abstract is when psychology essentially came to life (Willingham, 2007). The cognitive methodology has infused contemporary psychology by way of scientific interpretation of the convoluted human psyche, also the opportunity to infuse this knowledge in treatments of dysfunction and human disease (Eyseneck, 2004). Cognitive Psychology Defined Cognitive Psychology is a psychological perception which speaks to the mind in developing the perceiving, believing, problem solving, speaking, remembering and thinking, as well as, the search to recognize behavior by characteristics other than its noticeable properties (“Cognitive psychology”, 2009). Included is the use of abstract constructs and mental representations to discover relationships...
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...PRESCHOOL Just look at this→think of examples for all of them Chapter 7: Physical & Cognitive Development • Growth & ability of the body Right/ left handedness emerges early Bone ossification Gross motor skills • Brain lateralization—certain cognitive functions are located more in 1 hemisphere of brain than other→ become more pronounced during preschool years o Right vs. Left hemisphere specialization • Left hemisphere- speaking, reading, thinking & reasoning • Right Hemisphere- Spatial relationships, pattern recognition & emotional expression (global processing) o What are examples of skills associated with the right and left hemisphere? o Some specialization of each hemisphere, BUT each can perform most tasks of the other. EX: right hemisphere does some language processing and does important role in language comprehension • Piaget’s preoperational stage of cognitive development (early childhood: 2—6) o Children at this time increase in use of symbolic thinking, mental reasoning, use of concepts.. Representational thought • EX: seeing moms car keys(symbol) prompts u to ask “are we going to the store?” • Primarily defined by limitations. Characterized by centration o Aren’t capable of operations→ organized/formal mental process that develops in school-aged children o Confuses own POV w/ others & cant consider multiple characteristics of stuff o Period of centration- concentrating on 1 limited aspect of stimulus & ignoring other stimulus. (EX: a cat w/ dog...
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...They had to guess which emotion they eyes were portraying. Another test was a strange story test. These were a happe story task in order to demonstrate the validity of the eye task as a test of ToM. If it was a valid test then the performance of the eye task should correlate with performance on the strange story task. 2. The dependent variable on the eye test is whether the participants can recognize the emotion of the eyes. The independent variable is the groups they tested. 3. It’s a quasi-experiment because the experimenter did not control the IV. 4. The two control groups were Tourette’s and ‘normal’ participants. This is because they wanted to see if it was a mental disorder, which meant they couldn’t understand the theory of mind and the ‘normal’ group, was a control group because it’s meant to compare to the general population. 5. Answered in question 4. 6. The investigation found Autism participants by putting an advertisement in a popular Autism magazine. The Tourette participants were selected because of the similarities between the Autism and Tourette. For example, they are all developmental disorders experienced from childhood. These disorders disrupted normal schooling and peer relations and all have been associated with abnormities with the frontal region of the brain. 7. One of the pairs was concerned and unconcerned. These were targets terms and foil. 8. In the eye task the findings were that normal and TS participants performed identically...
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...Critically evaluate the theory of mind hypothesis of autism Childhood Autism is a rare and severe developmental disorder that affects about 4 in every 10,000 children (Baron-Cohen, Leslie & Frith, 1985). Autism affects how an individual communicates, socialises and even how they make sense of the world around them. Many theories have tried to explain what causes autism in an attempt to achieve greater understanding of the disorder and potentially aid those with autism to live happier and more fulfilling lives. In this essay I will be focusing on the symptoms of autism, the ‘theory of mind’ hypothesis and its strengths and weaknesses. The three main symptoms of autism were outlined by Wing and Gould (1979) and are known as the triad of impairments. These three impairments were identified as communication, socialisation and imagination. Many studies have found a distinct lack of communication skills in autistic children. Prior et al. (1998) found that autistic infants don’t attempt ‘babbling’ and they don’t follow the usual patterns of language development displayed by most infants, such as being able to speak simple one syllable words by the age of one, which over half of autistic children don’t do. Then, even when they begin to form understandable sentences, they often make grammatical errors and fail to use or comprehend emotional tone. This impairment of communication, both verbal and non-verbal, most likely plays a part in a lack of social understanding and stable...
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...Describe and assess dualism as a theory of the relation of mind and body. Human beings are material objects. However, unlike other material objects (e.g. non-living things) humans have the ability to form judgements and reason their existence. Meaning to say that, human beings have 'minds'. In general, humans are characterised as having both a mind and body. By definition, mind is referred to the mental processes, thought and consciousness whereas body is referred to the physical aspects of the brain-neurons and how the brain is structured. This is known as dualism. In the philosophy of mind, dualism is the theory that the mental (mind) and the physical (body) are both real or exist, but both of them are different kinds of thing. The theory of mind-body dualism is presented by Rene Descartes (1596-1650), who holds that both mind and body are substances, in which the body is a material substance as it is extended in space whereas the mind is an unextended in space, and so called spiritual substance. According to Descartes, he believed that mind and body actually can interact through the pineal gland in the brain. In Descartes’s first principle of philosophy, “I think, therefore I am”, makes mind more certain than matter. It also showed that the mind which is a thinking thing can exist apart from its extended body. Hence, Descartes said that the mind is a substance that is different from the body (a substance whose essence is thought). This became known as “Substance Dualism”...
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...Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human mind Theories and Motives of the human...
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...The consideration about the mind and the brain being an identical subject raises issues amongst the philosophers. In order to resolve these conflicts philosophers came up with four theories. These theories include dualism, functionalism, behaviourism and mind-brain identity theory. Each theory has its own perspectives toward the mind body related conflicts. There are oppositions between each theories as well as similarities. The most creditable and criticized theory can be said to be the mind-brain theory. The mind-brain theory states that the mind and the brain are one thing with different terminology. “At a certain point in the history of science, it was discovered that water is made of H₂O molecules…same point applies to the relationship of mental terms and neurophysiologic terms” (Sober, p.257). The mind-brain theory is compared to the science, where in the past when there was limited knowledge about a certain fact and how it was developed and changed dramatically over time like water and its molecular formula. By referring to the science, the mind-brain identity theory states that the current knowledge obtained to date is only limited and cannot prove the relationship of mind and the brain with facts. Since there is limited knowledge regarding this issue, as more knowledge is obtained through time, the mind-brain identity theory states that the relationship will be proven based on the future facts about the mind and the brain where it will show that they are one object...
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...Cartesian Dualism vs. the Identity Theory Dualism is a view that attempts to explain the relationship between mind and matter. Aristotle and Plato have tackled their version on dualism. Cartesian means “pertaining to the thought of Descartes” according to Edward Feser, “Philosophy of Mind.” Cartesian Dualism originates from Rene Descartes whose version of dualism is well known and an accepted explanation of the mind and body being vastly different. Let’s go deeper in the thoughts of Descarte’s and the support to the validity of his view on dualism. According to Professor Edward Feser’s book “Philosophy of Mind” Descarte’s “dualism claims that there is a difference between the mind and the body. Basically the mind is different from the body. We need a body to sustain life, whereas Descarte’s view is that the mind is an immaterial object. The mind allows a person to think, hope, believe and even doubt. These exist only in the mind and not a physical object. They are not physical, but the body is. Cartesian dualism clearly separates the conscious (mind) as a separate non-material form. Now let’s look deeper into the physical aspects of the body and the physical aspect of the mind. Descarte’s view depicts the body and the mind as extremely different. The body is a materialistic object; it has height, width, has movement and takes up physical space. The body itself is full of chemicals, water, tissue, organs and a skeletal frame that makes the body a physical object. These...
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...Theories of Personality University of Phoenix Theories of Personality Over the centuries, humans have been trying to figure out what makes each individual different. From the physical signs like hair color, to the more subtle personality differences that each human has, what really makes each individual unique? There have been many theories over the decades that can give some insight into this very question. Two of these theories are known as the psychodynamic theory and the humanistic and existential theory. Both of these theories have different takes on what individuality and personality are. There have been many theorists’ ties to these ideas. Some of these theorists include Freud, Adler, and Klein. These and many other theorists have tried to come up with a complete explanation of what individuality is and how it differs from person to person. Psychodynamic Theory The father of most modern psychology is widely considered to be none other than Sigmund Freud. According to Feist and Feist (2009), Freud was also the theorist behind the psychodynamic theory with his theories collectively called psychoanalysis. But there are other theorists within the psychodynamic theory as well. These theorists are Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Melanie Klein, Karen Horney, and Harry Stack Sullivan. But, each of these based their ideas on those of Freud. The psychodynamic theory has two main parts that help to define it. According to Psychodynamic (2008), the first part of the psychodynamic...
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...are many different theories out there on the topic of knowledge and what it is. These theories fall under two different categories; rationalism and empiricism. When asked which theory I feel answers the question of what knowledge is, I find that I cannot commit to just one. Rather I feel that a combination of Descartes and Locke’s theory of knowledge fits with my own beliefs. Since I cannot commit to strictly one theory I am on the fence about it, but for good reason. Parts of Descartes’s and Locke’s theories fit but not either of them completely. That being said my beliefs seem to fit in with dualism more completely than anything else. Dualism is the theory that the mind and body are separate entities (Palmer 442), which leans more towards the rationalism of Descartes. I believe in this idea that the mind and body are indeed two separate entities because there is so much that is unknown about consciousness in general. I feel that there is something much more to our minds and what it is truly capable of than we will ever know. I also think that the difference or the connection between mind and body is main problem with consciousness and because of this, the question of knowledge and what it means to know anything with certainty is so heavily debated. This is why I cannot fully commit to one theory of knowledge completely; bits of each theory, specifically Descartes and Locke’s theories, make sense when combined then either in particular. Descartes’s theory of knowledge goes...
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...Personality Theories Dena Headley BEH/225 November 15, 2014 Karen Pasveer Personality Theories Personality theory is a large area of psychological research, and there exists many different ideas concerning how personality is formed. A theory will present a systematic way of understanding behaviors and employs specific factors that are considered important. Despite there being a multitude of these theories, there are four theorists who had the largest influence in the development of personality theory. Those theorists include Freud, Jung, Rogers, and Maslow (Coon & Mitterer, 2013). Sigmund Freud The most well-known and one of the earliest personality theories were posited by Sigmund Freud. Freud proposed what is known as the psychodynamic perspective. The psychodynamic perspective describes personality in terms of the mind being divided into three functional areas. Freud described the minds functional areas in terms of the id, ego, and superego. According to Freud, the id is the instinctual area of the mind, the ego is the rational or logical control area of the mind, and the superego is the portion of the mind that provides moral standards and values (Coon & Mitterer, 2013). Psychoanalytic theory posits that a personality is developed through the interaction of these three portions of the mind. According to Freud “behavior, is ultimately determined by unconscious sexual and aggressive drives and by the complex intrapsychic conflicts that arise in daily life.”...
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