...To what extent has modern liberalism departed from the ideas of classical liberalism? The further development of industrialisation led to social and economic inequality. This led to a revision of classical liberal ideas to prevent the spread of ignorance and poverty. It is suggested that modern liberals have betrayed classical liberal ideas as they embrace collectivism and diverge from classical liberalism on issues such as freedom. However, it can be argued that modern liberals have simply built on classical liberal ideas such as its commitment to the individual. One area in which it is suggested that modern liberalism has departed from classical liberalism is individualism. Classical liberals believe in egoism, that individuals are rational self-interested creatures who have a pronounced capacity for self-reliance. Thus, they are influenced by Jeremy Bentham and utilitarianism which is the idea that individuals take decisions and moral action based on self-interest; that which maximises the individuals pleasure and minimises pain. He argued that ‘it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong’. They view society as atomistic, the idea that it is simply a composition of largely self-sufficient individuals. Thus, they disagree with paternalistic conservatism strongly as each individual can perceive their interests and its consequence. In practise, Classical liberals have supported a free market with minimum government intervention...
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...There are huge differences between classical and modern liberalism and as a result classical liberals believe that modern liberals have not stayed true to initial ideas posed by the likes of John Locke given that modern liberals have embraced collectivism while classical liberals favoured pure individualism. But they are fundamentally both forms of liberalism so are united in their belief of freedom and rights of the individual but they have slightly different views on the type of freedom they support. Classical liberalism has a belief in utilitarianism first posed by Jeremy Bentham, this is where individuals make tiny calculations about whether their actions will ‘maximise pleasure or minimise pain’. This is an egotistical form of individualism that assumes individuals are motivated by self-interest. Modern liberals do not share this view as they see it as a flawed method. This view of classical liberalism was opposite to that of paternalistic conservatism, who believe that the state can make the best decisions for the individual whereas classical liberals such as Bentham believed individuals knew what was best for themselves and thus can have the responsibility and freedom to act as they choose. This means that because the likes of Locke and Bentham prioritised the freedom and happiness of the individual, this leads classical liberals to a belief in negative freedom, which argues that there should be a removal of external restrictions from the individual. This is effectively...
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...The classical liberal ideology emerged as a result of the Enlightenment period, which brought about new philosophies, challenging the existing assumptions about the nature of humankind and society. Modern liberalism developed around 1870 as a result of both philosophical and practical changes, including mass industrialisation. Classical liberals argue that modern liberalism has broken the principles of doctrines central to liberal thought whilst modern liberals claim that they are simply adapting and building on classical liberalist ideas. This essay will discuss the extent to which modern liberalism departs from classical liberalisms by analysing approaches to the size of the state, democracy and the concept of freedom and aims to justify the argument that modern liberalism departs considerably from classical liberalism. Modern liberalism departs from the ideas of classical liberalism with regards to the concept of freedom, although the extent of difference is limited. Isiah Berlin first discussed the concept of freedom in an essay published in 1958. Berlin proposed two concepts of liberty; positive, which is supported by modern liberalists, and negative, which is supported by classical liberals. The classical conception of negative liberty suggests that society is best when there is an absence of external restrictions or constraints on the individual. Therefore, classical liberals strongly supported full individual freedom. John Stuart Mill, a political philosopher known...
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...To what extent have modern liberals departed from the ideas of classical liberalism? (45 marks) The two branches of modern liberalism and classical liberalism naturally clash within the ideology of liberalism itself. There are fundamental ideas that form criteria for debate across the two coexisting views, although they do possess various similarities with one another. Classical liberals often highlight the supreme importance of the individual, reflected in their desire to minimise the role of the state, whereas modern liberals take a more collective approach, and the see the expansion of the state as necessary based on the socio-economic circumstances of society. In this sense, modern liberalism can be viewed as a development on classical liberal thinking; it is only in the new ideas that modern liberalism brought about upon which they are fundamentally different. Modern liberalism can be viewed as taking a strong departure from classical liberalism based on their ideas of freedom. Firstly, classical liberals have believed in the idea of negative freedom, meaning non-interference or freedom from external interference of any sort; individuals should be left alone to make their own decisions. The government or state, external to the individual, should act as a ‘night watchman’, as summarized by the classical liberal John Locke, meaning its primary role should merely be to oversee society to keep law and order in place and the state in check. An extension of this classical view...
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...To What Extent Have Modern Liberals Departed from the Ideas of Classical Liberalism? (45) Liberalism has been active throughout Europe since the early 19th century, although the UKs first experience of Liberalism put into practice was in 1868 under Gladstone’s Liberal government. Early Liberalist ideas concentrated largely around core values of freedom, individualism and a minimal state. However, revisionists have deployed a modern liberalism, which in many ways have departed from core themes of Classic Liberals. Classic Liberalism has a heavy focus surrounding the core value of freedom, which also overlap the core theme of a minimalistic state. However, the evolution of liberalism, has brought about a different perspective as to what extent freedom should be exercised and at what point the state have a responsibility to implement restrictions. Early liberals such as John Locke and Adam Smith supported a ‘negative freedom’ whereby individuals were left to make their own choices without interferences from the state. J.S Mill another classic liberal proposed a very simple principle known as the Harm Principle. The harm principle is a concept which acknowledges the need for government intervention only when one’s action is physically detrimental to another. This again defends the concepts of both ‘negative freedom’ and a minimalistic state. Locke proposed the idea of ‘Natural Rights’ which specified god given rights such as life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. The idea of...
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...Section B Liberal democracy is a contradiction in terms.’ Discuss. To what extent is socialism defined by its rejection of capitalism? ‘The notion of a stateless society is merely an anarchist fantasy.’ Discuss. Section A = Explain the key ideas associated with revisionist socialism. On what grounds have conservatives supported paternalism? Explain the link between liberalism and constitutionalism. Why do anarchists view the state as inherently evil and oppressive? Why did Marx believe that capitalism is doomed to collapse, and how did he think this collapse would occur? Jan 2013 Section B To what extent do conservatives support tradition and continuity? ‘Anarchism is merely an extreme form of socialist collectivism.’ Discuss. To what extent have modern liberals departed from the ideas of classical liberalism? Section A = On what grounds have conservatives justified private property? Explain the link between liberalism and individualism. Why have democratic socialists believed that the victory of ‘gradualism’ is inevitable? On what grounds have anarchists rejected constitutionalism and consent? Explain how the neoliberal and neoconservative views of the role of the state differ June 2012 Section B Conservatism merely reflects the interests of the privileged and prosperous. Discuss To what extent have socialists favoured the common ownership of wealth Liberalism is defined by the desire to minimise the role of the state Section...
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...LIBERALISM QUESTIONS – A2 (UNIT 4) Short Answers 1. Why do liberals support constitutionalism and consent? (Jan 02) Constitutionalism is a belief in limited government brought about through external (usually legal) and internal (institutional) checks on the exercise of power. Consent is the idea that govt power should be based on the agreement of the governed, usually expressed through regular and competitive elections. Liberals support constitutionalism and consent because they fear that govt may become a tyranny against the individual, based on the assumption that power is inherently corrupting and concentrations of power will lead to absolute corruption. This assumption is rooted in the liberal view of human nature: as individualism implies self- interest, those with power over others are apt to abuse it for their benefit and at the expense of others. Liberal constitutionalism is expressed through support for various external and internal devices, such as codified constitutions, bills of rights, the separation of powers, federalism or devolution, and so on. Liberal support for consent is evident in support for electoral democracy in general and, more specifically, sympathy for referendums and proportional representation. 2. Distinguish between negative freedom and positive freedom, and explain the implications of each for the state. (Jun 02) Negative freedom is the absence of external constraints upon the individual, usually understood as non-interference...
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...Theories of International Relations Third edition Scott Burchill, Andrew Linklater, Richard Devetak, Jack Donnelly, Matthew Paterson, Christian Reus-Smit and Jacqui True Theories of International Relations This page intentionally left blank Theories of International Relations Third edition Scott Burchill, Andrew Linklater, Richard Devetak, Jack Donnelly, Matthew Paterson, Christian Reus-Smit and Jacqui True Material from 1st edition © Deakin University 1995, 1996 Chapter 1 © Scott Burchill 2001, Scott Burchill and Andrew Linklater 2005 Chapter 2 © Jack Donnelly 2005 Chapter 3 © Scott Burchill, Chapters 4 and 5 © Andrew Linklater, Chapters 6 and 7 © Richard Devetak, Chapter 8 © Christian Reus-Smit, Chapter 9 © Jacqui True, Chapter 10 © Matthew Paterson 2001, 2005 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright...
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...KNOWLEDGE AND VALUES by MARTIN ODEI AJEI submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the subject PHILOSOPHY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER: PROFESSOR M. B. RAMOSE AUGUST 2007 Contents Declaration Acknowledgement List of Acronyms Key terms Summary vi vii viii x xi INTRODUCTION: DEVELOPMENT AND PHILOSOPHY i. Statement of the Problem ii. Against Economism iii. Critique of Competition iv. Poverty is Unnatural v. Thesis Statement vi. Methodology vii. Structure of Dissertation 1 1 1 5 6 9 10 15 CHAPTER ONE: DIMENSIONS OF DEVELOPMENT AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON AFRICA 1.1. What is Development 1.2. Development and Economic Growth 1.3. Schools of Development Thought and their Influence in Africa 1.3.1. The Modernization School and its Essential Claims 1.3.1.1. Growth Theory under Economic Liberalism 1.3.1.2. Evolutionary Theory 1.3.1.3. Functionalist Theory 1.3.1.4. Common Assumptions and Methodology 1.3.1.5 The Influence of Modernization on Development Practice in Africa 1.3.1.6. Critique of Modernization 1.3.2 Dependency Theory and its Essential Claims 21 21 25 27 27 28 29 30 32 34 36 39 i 1.3.3. The Theoretical Heritage of Dependency Theory 1.3.3.1. Structuralist Economics and the ‘Prebisch Thesis’ 1.3.3.2. Marxism 1.3.4. Common Assumptions of Dependency Theory 1.3.5. Criticisms of Dependency Theory 1.3.6. The Influence of Dependency Theory on African Development Practice 1.3.6.1. Nkrumah’s Communalism and Development...
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...GLOBALIZATION THE ESSENTIALS GEORGE RITZER A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication Globalization Globalization A Basic Text George Ritzer This balanced introduction draws on academic and popular sources to examine the major issues and events in the history of globalization. Globalization: A Basic Text is a substantial introductory textbook, designed to work either on its own or alongside Readings in Globalization. The books are cross-referenced and are both structured around the core concepts of globalization. 2009 • 608 pages • 978-1-4051-3271-8 • paperback www.wiley.com/go/globalization Readings in Globalization Key Readings and Major Debates Edited by George Ritzer and Zeynep Atalay This unique and engaging anthology introduces students to the major concepts of globalization within the context of the key debates and disputes. Readings in Globalization illustrates that major debates in the field are not only useful to examine for their own merit but can extend our knowledge of globalization. The volume explores both the political economy of globalization and the relationship of culture to globalization. The volume is designed so it may be used independently, or alongside George Ritzer’s Globalization: A Basic Text for a complete student resource. 2010 • 560 pages • 978-1-4051-3273-2 • paperback Order together and save! Quote ISBN 978-1-4443-2371-9 GLOBALIZATION THE ESSENTIALS GEORGE RITZER A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication This edition first...
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...the Egyptian pyramids and to have calculated the distance from shore of ships at sea using his knowledge of geometry. He also predicted an eclipse of the sun. In geometry Thales has been credited with the discovery of five theorems like the one that a triangle inscribed in a semicircle has a right angle. He tried to discover the substance from which everything in nature is made off and suggested water. Thales is important in bridging the worlds of myth and reason. He initiated the revolutionary notion that to understand the world one needed to know its nature and that there was an explanation for all phenomena in natural terms. That was a giant step from the assumptions of the old world that supernatural forces determined almost everything. While considering the effects of magnetism and static electricity, he concluded that the power to move other things without the mover itself changing was a characteristic of "life", so that a magnet and amber must therefore be alive in some way (in that they have animation or the power to act). If so, he argued, there is no difference between the living and the dead. If all things were alive, they must also have souls or divinities (a natural belief of his time), and the end result of this argument was an almost total removal of mind from substance, opening the door to an innovative non-divine principle of action. Thales recognized a single transcendental God (Monism), who has neither beginning nor end, but who expresses himself through...
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...contrast, inequality was pervasive in the agrarian economies that dominated the world in 1800. The Industrial Revolution deeply changed this trend, Income per person began to undergo sustained growth in a favored group of countries. The richest modern economy are now ten to twenty times wealthier than the 1800 average. For Clarks the biggest beneficiary of this revolution has been the unskilled workers, the poorest. Just as the Industrial Revolution reduced in come inequalities within societies, it has increased them between societies, in a process recently labeled the Great Divergence.1 For example African countries, in certain case, would have been better never discover the industrial revolution, because they remained trap in the Malthusian Era creating an higher divergence between population, and driving down standards to subsistence. * Why did the Malthusian Trap persist for so long? * Why did the initial escape from that trap in the Industrial Revolution occur on one tiny island, England, in 1800? * Why was there the consequent Great Divergence? "Thus I make no apologies for focusing on income. Over the long run in come is more powerful than any ideology or religion in shaping lives. No God has commanded worshippers to their pious duties more forcefully than income as it subtly directs the fabric of our lives " The Malthusian Trap: Life to 1800 The crucial factor was the rate of technological advance. As long as technology improved slowly...
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...body of literature which England had produced since the Elizabethan period. All the greatest of these writers were poets, wholly or in part, and they fall roughly into two groups: first, William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey, and Walter Scott; and second, about twenty years younger, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats. This period of Romantic Triumph, or of the lives of its authors, coincides in time, and not by mere accident, with the period of the success of the French Revolution, the prolonged struggle of England and all Europe against Napoleon, and the subsequent years when in Continental Europe despotic government reasserted itself and sternly suppressed liberal hopes and uprisings, while in England liberalism and democracy steadily and doggedly...
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...Министерство образования и науки Республики Казахстан Кокшетауский государственный университет им. Ш. Уалиханова An Outline of British Literature (from tradition to post modernism) Кокшетау 2011 УДК 802.0 – 5:20 ББК 81:432.1-923 № 39 Рекомендовано к печати кафедрой английского языка и МП КГУ им. Ш. Уалиханова, Ученым Советом филологического факультета КГУ им. Ш. Уалиханова, УМС КГУ им. Ш. Уалиханова. Рецензенты: Баяндина С.Ж. доктор филологических наук, профессор, декан филологического факультета КГУ им. Ш. Уалиханова Батаева Ф.А. кандидат филологических наук, доцент кафедры «Переводческое дело» Кокшетауского университета им. А. Мырзахметова Кожанова К.Т. преподаватель английского языка кафедры гуманитарного цикла ИПК и ПРО Акмолинской области An Outline of British Literature from tradition to post modernism (on specialties 050119 – “Foreign Language: Two Foreign Languages”, 050205 – “Foreign Philology” and 050207 – “Translation”): Учебное пособие / Сост. Немченко Н.Ф. – Кокшетау: Типография КГУ им. Ш. Уалиханова, 2010 – 170 с. ISBN 9965-19-350-9 Пособие представляет собой краткие очерки, характеризующие английскую литературу Великобритании, ее основные направления и тенденции. Все известные направления в литературе иллюстрированы примерами жизни и творчества авторов, вошедших в мировую литературу благодаря...
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...publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed review. The opinions expressed in this publication is the personal views of the authors, and do not necessary reflect the opinion of the publisher. Layout and cover design: Font: Font size: Printer: Hafizuldin bin Satar Goudy Old Style 11 pt Gemilang Press Sdn Bhd iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS T his book grew out of a three-day workshop jointly held by the Regional Studies Program, Walailak University, and the Department of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies, Copenhagen University, in Nakhon Si Thammarat, southern Thailand, in 2006. The theme of the workshop was, “Voices of Islam in Europe and Southeast Asia”. Its aim was to gather leading scholars in the fields of Islamic Studies from diverse disciplinary backgrounds to discuss contemporary developments in the study of Islam and Muslim societies in...
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